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THE

NATURAL HISTORY REVIEW

$naridg Jatmrat of Swtojgual $timtt

EDITED BY

G. BUSK, F.R.S., Sec. L.S. W. B. CARPENTER, M.D., F.R.S., F.L.S.

F. CURREY, F.R.S., F.L S. J. REAY GREENE, A.B.

T. H. HUXLEY, F.R.S., F.L.S. J. LUBBOCK, F.R.S., F.L.S.

R. MCDONNELL, M.D., M.R.I.A. D. OLIVER, F.L.S.

P. L. SCLATER, A.M., Sec. Z.S., F.L.S. W. THOMSON, LL.D., F.R.S.E.

E. P.WRIGHT, A.M., M.D., F.L.S.

1861

WILLIAMS AND NORGATE,

14. HENRIETTA STREET, COVENT GARDEN, LONDON; AND

20, SOUTH FREDERICK STREET, EDINBURGH.

1861.

frjK*

CONTENTS OF VOL. I.

No. I.— JANUABY, 1861.
REVIEWS.

PAGE

1. Dr. Von Mar this' s Flora Br asiliensis . . . . i

2. Berkeley's British Fungology . . . . .5

3. The Mammals of Amoorland . . . . .13

4. On Daphniidce ; being a Review of Leydig's recent work, — "Natur-

gesehichte der Daphniden." By J. Lubbock, F.R.S. . . 22

5. On the natural Position and Limits of the group Protozoa . . 34

ORIGINAL ARTICLES.

6. On Sphcerulana Bombi. By John Lubbock, E.R.S., F.L.S., F.G-S.

(with Plate I.) . . . . . . . .44

7. On an Organ in the Skate which appears to be the homologue of the

Electrical Organ of the Torpedo. By Robert M'Donnell, M.D., F.R.O.S.I. 57

8. Notes on the Anatomy of the Alimentary System of the Axolotl (Siredon

Mexicanum). By E. Perceval Wright, A.M., M.B., E.L.S., Lecturer

on Zoology, University of Dublin (with Plate II.) . . .60

9. On the Zoological Relations of Man with the Lower Animals. By Pro-

fessor Huxley, E.R.S. . . . '. . .67

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTICES.

Introductory Notice ♦ . . . . . .85

10. List of Serials referred to in the Bibliography . . . .85

11. Bibliography of Phanerogamic Botany . . . . .91

12. Bibliography of Cryptogamic Botany . . . . .115

No. II. -APEIR 1861.

REVIEWS.

13. A History of Infusoria, including the Desmidiacea3 and Diatomacese,

British and Foreign. By Andrew Pritchard, M.R.I. Fourth Edition.
Enlarged and Revised by J. T. Arlidge, M.B., B.A.,; W. Archer, Esq.;
J. Ralfs, M.R.C.S.L.; W. C. Williamson, F.R.S. ; and the Author . 121

14. Primitive Floras Amurensis. By C. J. Maximowicz, Traveller to the

Imperial Botanical Garden of St. Petersburgh . . .126

IT CONTENTS.

ORIGINAL ARTICLES.

PAGE

15. On the Species and Genera of Plants, considered with reference to then-

practical Application to Systematic Botany. By George Bentham . 133

16. On the Serial Homologies of the Articular Surfaces of the Mammalian

Axis, Atlas, and Occipital Bone. By J. Cleland, M.D., Demonstrator

of Anatomy in the University of Edinburgh . . . .151

17. On the Crania of the most Ancient Baces of Man. By Professor D.

Schaaffhausen, of Bonn, &c. &c. (with Plates IV. V.) . .155

18. The Sensory and Motor Functions of Nerves. By G. H. Lewes . 176

19. General Results of the Study of Typical Forms of Foraminifera, in their

relation to the Systematic Arrangement of that Group, and to the
Fundamental Principles of Natural History Classification. By Wm. B.
Carpenter, M.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S. . . . .185

20. On the Affinities of the Brain of the Orang Utang. By George Rolleston,

M.D., F.L.S., Linacre Professor of Anatomy, (with Plate III.) . 201

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTICES.

Classification . . . . . . .218

21. Addition to List of existing Periodicals . . . .219

22. Bibliography of Zoology, Geographical Distribution, &c. . .221

23. Bibliography of Mammalia, including Anthropology . . 224

24. Bibliography of Aves ...... 229

25. Bibliography of Reptilia and Amphibia . . . .236

26. Bibliography of Pisces . . . . . . .237

27. Bibliography of Annulosa ...... 241

lNTo. Ill— JULY, 1861.

REVIEWS.

28. Colonial Floras. — 1. Flora of the British West Indian Islands. By

A. H. R, Grisebach, M.D., Professor of Botany in the University of
Gottingen. Part I. -III. — 2. Flora Capensis: being a Systematic descrip-
tion of the Plants of the Cape Colony, Caffraria, and Port Natal, by
W. H. Harvey, M D., F.R.S., Professor of Botany in the University of
Dublin, &c. and Otto Wilhelm Sonder, Ph. D. of Hamburgh. Vol. I.
—3. Enumeratio Plantarum Zeylanise: an Enumeration of Ceylon
Plants, with descriptions of the little known Genera and Species, obser-
vations on their habitats, uses, native names, &c. by G. H. K. Thwaites,
F.L.S , Director of the Royal Botanic Garden, Peradenia, Ceylon.
Parts I.-IIL— 4. Flora Hong-Kongensis: a description of the Flower-
ing Plants and Ferns of the Island of Hong-Kong, by George Bentham,
V.P.L.S., with a Map of the Island 255

29. Course of Lectures on the Physiology and Pathology of the Central Ner-

vous System. Delivered at the Royal College of Surgeons of England,

in May, 1858, by C. E. Brown-Sequard, M.D., F.R.S., &c. &c . 267

30. The Fauna of Equatorial Africa. Du Chaillu . . -288

CONTENTS. V

ORIGINAL ARTICLES.

PAGE

31. On the Brain of a Young Chimpanzee. By John Marshall, F.R.S., Sur-

geon to the University College Hospital (Plate VI.) . . .296

32. Anatomical Notes. By Professor Hyrtlof the University of Vienna . 315

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTICES.

33. Bibliography of Mollusca ...... 325

34. Bibliography of Coelenterata . . . . . .331

35. Bibliography of Protozoa ...... 335

36. Bibliography of Physiology and Human Anatomy, including Histology . 337

37. Bibliography of Palaeontology ...... 348

38. Bibliography of Phanerogamia ..... 360

39. Bibliography of Cryptogamia. ...... 381

No. IV.— OCTOBEB, 1861.

REVIEWS.

40. Brown- Sequard's Lectures on the Physiology and Pathology of the Cen-

tral Nervous System (concluded.) ..... 399

41. Memo ire sur la tribu des Hysterinees de la famille des Hypoxylees

(Pyrenomycetes ), par M. le Pasteur Duby, Docteur-es-Sciences . 407

42. Blackwall's Spiders of Great Britain and Ireland. Published by the Ray

Society . . . . . . . . .410

43. Recent Contributions to the Literature of the Sub-Kingdom Ccelenterata . 416

44. Contributions to the Natural History of the United States of America.

By Louis Agassiz. Vol. IH. Boston, 1860 .... 433

45. Zoological Sketches. By Joseph Wolf. Made for the Zoological Society

of London, from Animals in their Vivarium. Edited with Notes, by
P. L. Sclater, M.A., F.R.S., &c. Secretary to the Society . . 445

ORIGINAL ARTICLES.

46. Report on Vegetable Parthenogenesis. By F. Currey, M.A., F.R.S. . 447

47. On the Systematic Arrangement of the "Rkizopoda. By Wm. B. Car-

penter, M.D., F.R.S., &c. . . . . . .456

48. On Certain Points in the Anatomy and Physiology of the Dibranchiate

Cephalopoda. By Albany Hancock, Esq. .... 473

49. On Correlations of Growth, with a Special Example from the Anatomy

of a Porpoise. By G. Rolleston, M.D., F.L.S., Linacre Professor of
Physiology in the University of Oxford .... 484

50. On the Kjbkkenmoddings : recent Geologico-Archseological Researches

in Denmark. By John Lubbock, Esq., F.R.S. (Plate VII.) . . 489

vi CONTENTS.

PAGE

51. Report on the Present State of our Knowledge of the Species of Apteiyx

living in New Zealand. By P. L. Sclater, M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S., and
Dr. P. von Hochstetter . . . . . . .504

52. Note upon the Northern Limit of the Quadrumana in the New World.

By P. L. Sclater, M.A., &c 507

53. On the Myology of the Orang Utang (Simia Morio). By W. S. Church,

B.A., Lee's Reader in Anatomy, Christ Church, Oxford . .510

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTICES.

54. Alphabetical List of Authors . . . . . .516

55. Phanerogamia — Bibliography— Index to New Genera described in the

Works enumerated . . . . . . .525

Index ... . ..... 527

THE

NATURAL HISTORY REVIEW:

QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF BIOLOGICAL SCIENCE.

§Ubbltrs.

I. — Flora Brasiliensis : Edidit Carolus Fred. Phil, de Martius.
Fasc. xxv. el xxvi. Saxtalace^e et MYRisncACEiE. Exposuit Alph.
de Candolle, 36 pp., 8 plates. Apocyxace^e. Exposuit Joan. Miiller,
Argoviensis, 180 pp., 53 plates, folio.

This great work is proceeding slowly, but steadily, under the editorship
and superintendence of Dr. von Martifts. When first that distinguished
traveller and botanist undertook, in conjuction with the late Dr. End-
licher of Vienna, the preparation of a complete Flora of the Brazilian
Empire, he hoped to have contributed a great proportion of it himself;
and, accordingly, one of the first parts published — the " Anonaceae" —
was entirely his own. But he soon found, that if carried through on the
scale he contemplated, it was far beyond the work of a single man ; and
he applied himself to the obtaining the collaboration of the most active
among modern systematic botanists. Upon this plan, the different natural
orders are undertaken by different monographists, each one availing him-
self of the materials supplied by Dr. von Martius, and of such others as
could be obtained from the herbaria accessible to each, — Dr. von Martius
reserving for his own share such revision of the MSS. as may be neces-
sary to put them in conformity with the general plan, the superinten-
dence of the printing and engraving, and in many instances the prepa-
ration of the drawings. This course has insured the more careful
working out of the different parts than could be obtained by any other
means, and was perhaps the only feasible plan. But it necessarily entails
a want of unity of principle, which will be a great obstacle to the deduc-
tion of general conclusions from the work when completed. The uni-
formity secured by the editor's labours can be external only ; for the
systematic views of the different contributors are as different as the ma-
vol. i. — x. H. R. B

2 REVIEWS.

terials they have to work upon. Thus, the SolanaceaB, carefully de-
scribed by an apparently judicious appreciator of species, might have
been doubled in number in the hands of the monographists of the order
in the Prodromus. The Myrtacece, elaborated with all the industry, and
zeal, and perhaps haste of a young botanist, might have been reduced
by one-fourth by the close scrutiny of botanists more accustomed to ap-
preciate the variations of species or of individuals. The principles upon
which genera are made or adopted are also as different in different mo-
nographs as the estimation of species. In one portion of the Flora large
natural genera are left intact, and endeavours have been made to group
the smaller ones established on individual or uncertain characters;
whilst in other parts (e. g. Acanthaceae or Cyperaceee) the great object
seems to have been to multiply long-winded, harsh -sounding generic
names, with or without characters.

As to the materials at the disposal of the various monographists, as
no part of the Flora is worked up in the country itself, they can only
consist of dried specimens, preserved in herbaria, with the memoranda
accompanying them, and are chiefly made up of collections made in
Brazil by German, French, or English travellers. Among the most im-
portant of them, the original and most complete sets are deposited in
different capitals of Europe. Those, for instance, of Langsdorff and
Kiedel, are at St. Petersburgh ; of Sellow, at Berlin ; of Polil, Schott,
and Mikan, at Vienna ; of Martins and Prince Neuwied, at Munich ; of
Blanchet, Salzmann, and Yauthier, at Geneva; of A. de St. Hilaire,
Claussen, Gaudichaud, Guillemin, and Weddell, at Paris; of Gardner and
Spruce, at Kew, &c. The large herbaria in each of these towns contain
also, it is true, more or less perfect sets of duplicates from all the others,
as well as of the less general collections of Pceppig, Luschnaht, Lhotzky,
Regnell, and others ; and for the purposes of this Flora, specimens have
been lent from several herbaria ; yet it is only in the towns above men-
tioned that access can be had, respectively, to the explanatory memoranda
accompanying the original sets. Very few, therefore, of the contribu-
tors have been in circumstances which allowed them the full use of all,
or even of the greater number, of these complete collections. Most have
worked upon one or two complete ones, with duplicates from others.
Dr. von Martius has sent the Munich specimens at his disposal, with his
valuable memoranda, to, we believe, all his collaborators. The Russian
materials have been very liberally lent to several who had applied for
them ; the Sellowian and Pohlian materials have been available to most
of the German contributors ; everything that Geneva could supply has
been lent to those who were at the same time working up corresponding
monographs for the Prodromus. Paris and Kew have at different times
lent largely for this and other works ; but these herbaria have now ac-
quired so much importance and value, that it has been found necessary,
in both establishments, to make it a rule no longer to suffer unique or
authenticated specimens to be removed, even for a short time ; and
visits to Paris and Kew are now almost indispensable to the systematic
botanist who would make his monograph at all complete. The great di-

MAETIUS 8 FLORA BliA SILIENSIS. 3

versity in respect of the specimens available for the monographists of the
" Flora Brasiliensis" may be well illustrated by the contrast between
the Aeanthaceoe and the Verbenaceae, both of them worked up in Ger-
many at about the same period, — the one with the assistance of almost
every one of the collections above named ; the other without any aid
from the English, French, or Russian herbaria, nor yet, it would appear,
from all the German ones. The difference in the use made of their ma-
terials by these two monographists is also^ great, but rather in an inverse
than a direct ratio of their copiousness.

The present part has been wholly worked up, at Geneva, in the her-
barium andlibrary of De Candolle — the herbarium, one of the most ex-
tended and varied that exists, the botanical library, a very complete one
in itself, and peculiarly adapted for practical use by the habit regularly
adopted by the elder De Candolle, and continued by his son, of extract-
ing from every new work received, references to genera newly esta-
blished or modified, to be regularly entered into an alphabetical register
kept for the purpose, and to species or structural observations entered
on separate slips of paper, and duly distributed into the covers or cases
kept for the different natural orders. Th us any monographist is at once
directed to the whole literature relating to the order or genus he takes
in hand. With such resources, and considerable assistance from other
quarters, Alph. de Candolle was enabled to give a very complete mono-
graph of the Santalaceae and Myristicacese in the Prodomus, of which the
articles on these families in the Brazilian Flora may be considered as an
amplification in respect of the very few species indigenous to that coun-
try,— 2 species of Thesium, and 26 of Myristica. To these the editor has
added a digression on the use and cultivation of the nutmeg, and on the
history — no very edifying one — of the almost abortive attempts hitherto
made to introduce it into Brazil. The great bulk, however, of the part con-
sists of the Apocynaceae byDr.T.Miiller of Argovie, curator of the Candol-
lean herbarium. This order, monographised for theProdromus, in 1844, by
Alph. De Candolle, is here worked up afresh, as far as regards the South
American, and especially the Brazilian, species, after a comparison of the
types of the Prodromus with the materials accumulated in the Candollean
herbarium, or borrowed from Munich, Petersburgh, Berlin, Vienna, and
Paris, but without any aid from British collections, beyond a good du-
plicate set of Spruce's plants, in Martius's herbarium, and a tolerably fair
one of Gardner's, in the Vienna Museum. The result is a detailed and
apparently accurate description of 274 species, distributed into 32 genera,
and illustrated by 53 plates. These plates are well engraved, and ac-
companied by ample dissections, sufficiently magnified to express clearly
what they are intended to show, without that exaggeration of size which
renders the plates in some of our modern works or memoirs almost un-
intelligible to unaccustomed eyes. The synonymy and stations are de-
tailed after the general plan of the work; and, for some peculiarities in
terminology — such as the substitution of " rostellum" for " radicula" —
it is probable that here, as in other instances, the editor, not the author,
is responsible.

4 REVIEWS.

The generic characters are very long, — that of the first genus, for
instance, Allamanda, occupies 54 lines, and contains details which cannot
be essential to the genus, nor can have been verified in the majority of
species ; such, for instance, as " Rostellum . . . circa quintuplo cotyle-
donibus brevius," when the seeds have only been seen in three out of ten
species. It is true that imperfectly known species must often be referred
to a genus without verifying all its characters, subject to a subsequent
removal, if found to differ in .essential points ; but it surely cannot be
intended that any species the radicle of whose embryo should be |rd,
instead of -ith the length of the cotyledons, should on that account alone
be generically separated from other Allamandas.

Practically, however, these generic characters must be taken as de-
scriptive, rather than diagnostic; and the inconvenience of their great
length for distinctive purposes is, in the present work, obviated by an
excellent synoptical table of genera, remarkably clear, both as to matter
and type. But no such assistance is afforded in the case of species. In
the larger genera, even after their subdivision into groups, there remain
series of ten, twelve, or more species, without any contrasted characters,
to guide the reader, but such as he can glean from so-called diagnoses,
which, far from being confined to the Linnean limits of twelve words,
have an average length of twelve to fourteen lines, and are, in fact, de-
tailed descriptions in the ablative case, of almost all characters, except
colour and dimensions, which, in true orthodox style, are specially re-
served for a separate paragraph in the nominative case. This is a
growing evil in almost all modern systematic works, and for which we
see no remedy but a rigid return to the Linnean rule, accompanied by
repeated sectional subdivisions, or a total abandonment of the system of
technical diagnoses, substituting synoptical tables, followed by detailed
descriptions.

In the generic arrangement of the Brazilian Apocynaceae, Dr. Miil-
ler appears to have much improved on his predecessors. The general
division of the order into two main groups, founded on the structure of
the anthers, is, we believe, new. It appears natural; and, if duly vere-
fied on the Asiatic, as well as on the American genera, is in every way
satisfactory. The tribes are, in other respects, nearly those of the Pro-
dromus. We are glad to see, also, that several genera which we had
already set down as not natural, are here suppressed. Collophora
(Mart), and Hortsmania (Miq.), are identified respectively with
Couma (Aubl.), and Condylocarpon (Desf.), Peschiera and Bonafousia
(A. DC), are reduced to Tabernaem on tana; Eobbia (A.DC.),toMalouetia,
and Thysanthus (Benth.), to Porsteronia. On the other hand, eight
new genera are proposed, besides three more South American, but not
Brazilian genera, which the author has described at the same time, and
published in Mohl and Schlechtendahl's Botanische Zeitung, 1860, p.
21. Of these eleven genera, Elytropus, founded on a Chilian plant,
appears to be very distinct. Zschokkea, allied to Ambelania, Couma,
and Hancornia, must be maintained, so long as the three latter are
kept distinct, although it is not improbable that on a careful comparison

BERKELEY S OUTLINES OF BRITISH FUNGOLOGY. 5

of all the species of truly baccate Carisseae, from the Old as well as the
New World, some further generic consolidation may simplify the sys-
tem. The other nine genera, Heterothrix, Macrosiphonia, Amblyan-
thera, Mesechites, Rhodocalyx, Rhabdadenia, Stipecoma, Prestoniopsis,
and TJrechites (the two last extra-Brazilian) would all have formed part
of the old genus Echites. Their establishment as separate genera may
have been rendered necessary by the adoption of those already severed
from Echites by Alph. De Candolle and others; and the numerous
species appear to us to be better grouped here than in the Prodromus ;
yet we cannot but regret that, in some instances, the course had not been
preferred of maintaining larger genera, divided into sub-genera and
sections.

With regard to species, as far as we have investigated them, we con-
sider Dr. Muller's appreciation of their value as very fair. As was to
be expected, several which had been previously proposed, upon single
specimens, have, on the comparison of more copious collections, proved
to be varieties of variable types ; and a considerable number of old Echi-
tes, especially belonging to the genera Odontadenia, Dipladenia, Am-
blyanthera, &c, admitted into the Prodromus and other works, are here
judiciously reduced. Future investigations may even suggest still further
consolidations: Forsteronia Benthamiana (Mull.), will, for instance,
probably prove to be but a very slight variety of F. Schomburgkii.
But, upon the whole, we can neither class Dr. Miiller with the modern
wholesale species-makers, nor yet charge him with inconsiderate amal-

oiation.

Besides the 274 species of Apocynacese enumerated in the present
work, Dr. Miiller has published annotations or descriptions of sixty
more American, but not Brazilian species, in the 30th vol. of the Linnaea,
pp. 387 to 454.

II. — Outlines of British Eungology : containing Characters of above
a Thousand Species of Eungi, and a complete List of all that have
been described as Natives of the British Isles. By the Eev. M. J.
Berkeley, M. A., E. L. S., author of "Introduction to Cryptogamic
Botany." London: Lovell Reeve. 1860.

Mr. Berkeley's work is a most valuable addition to the botanical lite-
rature of this country. To a great extent (although, from its profes-
sedly limited scope, not entirely) it fills up a gap which has long existed.
None of the recent works on the British Elora profess to deal with the
Eungi, nor would it be convenient that they should do so ; for the sub-
ject, from its nature and magnitude, requires to be treated separately.
Mr. Berkeley's work contains descriptions, accompanied in many in-
stances by figures, of all such British Eungi as require nothing more
than a common lens for their examination; and, in addition, it contains
the characters of the genera of all other known British Eungi, with a list

o REVIEWS.

of the species of each genus, and references to the places where the
species are described. This list is of great utility, inasmuch as the
latest systematic account of British Fungi is dated in ] 832, being com-
prised in the second part of the fifth volume of Sir E. Smith's " English
Flora." Since 1832, vast numbers of species, new to this country, many
of them also new to science, have been discovered and described ; but
the student in search of them was driven to a roving expedition through
the successive volumes of the " Annals of Natural History," and of one
or two other works, before these additioual species could be ascertained.
By the references given in Mr. Berkeley's book, taken in connexion with
the explanation at page 305, which we think would have been better
placed in the Preface, or in one of the early chapters, any species may
now be readily referred to.

The book is divisible into two parts, viz., the introductory portion,
consisting of 13 chapters, and the systematic arrangement. The former
part contains a concise account of the different divisions of the whole
tribe, as well as of the nature and habitats of Fungi in general, and their
geographical distribution. This is followed by an account of their
mode of growth, structure, and method of propagation, as well as of the
variations of form which they assume. The uses of Fungi, and the dis-
eases caused by them, are then described ; and some remarks are added,
showing what has been done with regard to their cultivation, and the
manner in which they should be collected and preserved. The whole
of this introductory matter is admirably adapted for guiding the student,
who will give his energies to the subject, to an acquaintance with this
most interesting branch of botanical science.

The work being professedly intended for popular use, any lengthened
discussion of intricate mycological questions would have been out of
place ; but one or two such questions come to the surface here and there,
upon which we have a few comments to offer.

In speaking of the genus Boletus, the author refers to the singular
fact of the instantaneous change which takes place in the colour of the
flesh, when broken, from white or yellow to dark blue ; and he adds
that this change, after being long a source of perplexity, is now known
to depend upon the action of ozone upon the juices. Mr. Berkeley seems
to adopt the opinion of M. Schoenbein,* who examined the question in
1856, with reference to B. luridus. Schoenbein discovered a resinous
matter like guaiacum, which, like that substance, turned blue when in
contact with ozone. Since that time, it has been thought that Schoen-
bein's investigations have not exhausted the subject; and the Belgian
Academy lately proposed the following question for a prize essay : —
" Determiner par des recherches a la fois anatomiques et chimiques, la
cause des changements de couleur que subit la chair des bolets en
general, et de plusieurs russules quand on la brise on qu' on la com-
prime." M. Kickz, one of the referees, in a report made to the Aca-

* Uebor die nachste Ursache der spontanen Blaiiung ciniger Pilze. Munchen, 1856.

BERKELEY S OUTLINES OF BRITISH FUNGOLOGY. 7

demy, observes, with reference to M. Schoenbein's views, — 1st. That
blue is not the only colour which the Boleti assume ; 2nclly. He asks,
"Why does not the change of colour take place spontaneously in the
plant itself, since all the elements which produce the phenomenon are
produced by the plant ? 3rdly. How is it that simple pressure often
produces the same effect as rupture ? And, 4thly, Why do not all Boleti
change colour in the same manner? Mons. Kiekz suggests a scheme
of inquiry with the view of more fully determining the question.* He
considers that, before the point can be looked upon as settled, it will be
necessary that the anatomical structure and chemical composition of the
Boleti which change colour, should be examined and compared with the
structure of those which do not change, and that this comparison
should be made at different periods of the growth of each species ; that
care must be taken to observe the difference of colour of the flesh of
the pileus and of the hymenium in the same species, and to ascertain in
which organs the colouring matter resides ; that inquiry must be made
whether similar colouring matter exists in other Fungi in which simi-
lar changes have been observed, and whether any relation subsists
between the change of colour which takes place in the Boleti and that
which has been observed to occur in the milk of certain Lactarii. This
inquiry is, doubtless, sufficiently extensive: if any mycologist should
be willing to undertake it, we believe the prize of the Belgian Academy
is still open. It has been suggested that the colouring matter consists
of aniline, and this idea has been brought forward again in the " Comptes
Rendus" (16th July,1860(, where M. Phipson remarks : —

" The colouring matter which exists in these Boleti in a colourless state is soluble In
alcohol, not easily miscible with water, and becomes resinous in the atmosphere. It
possesses the properties of aniline, and, under the action of oxydizing agents, produces
the same colours as aniline and its saline compounds."

M. Jlartensf has objected that the matter is not likely to be ani-
line, because aniline, he says, has not been found in any vegetable,
forgetting apparently that it exists largely in Indigo.

Amongst the different divisions of Fungi, of which a concise general
account is given in the work before us, reference is made to a very re-
markable group (the Myxogastres), to which considerable biological
interest attaches — an interest, moreover, in which the zoologist and
the botanist are equally concerned. The peculiarities of the group are
very great, as will be seen by the following extract: —

" A lariie group of Fungi, containing multitudes of the most exquisite microscopic
objects, is distinguished by the early condition being creamy or mucilaginous. They
differ in many respects from other Fungi, and especially because they seem often quite
independent of the substance on which they are developed. One species, for instance,
was discovered by Schweinitz, in America, growing on iron which had been red-hot only

* See " Bulletins de 1' Acad. Roy. de Belgique," 2nd Ser , vol. viii., p. 365.
f See "Bull, de l'Acad. Roy. de Belgique," 2nd Ser., vol. viii., p. 372.

O HE VIEWS.

a few hours before I have seen specimens, again, of another species growing

on a leaden cistern at Kew, from which it could derive no nutriment. Another was
found by Sowerby on cinders on the outside of the dome of St. Paul's."

Until lately, no question lias been raised as to the organisms belong-
ing to this group having been rightly placed amongst the Fungi ; but in
the " Botanische Zeitung" for 1858 (t. xvi, p. 357), Dr. De Bary ex-
pressed an opinion that they are animals, and he has since maintained
this view in an elaborate essay in Siebold and Kolliker's "Zeitschrift
fur wissens-chaftliche Zoologie." His argument is founded partly upon
the peculiarities of growth above referred to, but more particularly upon
the nature of their component substance, which he considers almost iden-
tical with sarcode.

He also lays some stress upon the fact, that the Myxogastres, at an
early stage of their growth, exhibit in the substance of their bodies
solid matter taken in from without, such as cells of algse, spores of
fungi, &c. He says that if these ingesta can be considered to be food,
the fact would establish the animal nature of the Myxogastres, because,
if an organism eats, it must be an animal. He admits, however, that
there is no proof that the ingesta are food, and that the solid bodies in
question may have gained admittance accidentally.

Mr. Berkeley, in combating De Bary's views, observes: — u A suffi-
cient answer is the fact, that some of the species contain spiral vessels,
and have their spores surrounded by a distinct sac."

The latter objection is strong, and is one which De Bary has not
met, having contented himself with simply calling in question some ob-
servations on the genera Badhamia and Enerthenema, in which Mr.
Berkeley and other observers allege (as we believe correctly) that such
a sac exists. With regard, however, to the spiral vessels, we think Mr.
Berkeley states their existence too confidently. It is true that all the
species of TrichiaB contain threads, sometimes short and fusiform, some-
times of great length, and forming almost a net- work, all of which
threads bear spiral marhmgs ; but the nature of these markings is still
a subject of controversy, and the determination of the question is depen-
dent upon microscopical investigation, and, like the question as to the
markings on the valves of the Diatomacese, will probably long continue
undecided. De Bary, it may be observed, adopts unhesitatingly the
opinion expressed in the " Microscopical Journal" (vol. iii., p. 15), ac-
cording to which the spiral markings of the TrichiaB are not produced by
the existence of a spiral fibre, but are an optical effect arising from an
arcuate elevation of the cell- wall, following a spiral direction from one
end of the threads to the other.

In commenting upon De Bary's observations, M. Tnlasne has called
attention to a fact in support of his views, viz., the existence in the exter-
nal covering of the Myxogastres of a white calcareous salt, which effer-
vesces in sulphuric acid. '* I am surprised," says M. Tulasne,* " that M.

* See " Ann. des Sciences Nat.," 4 Ser., vol. xi., p. 150.

BEKKELEY S OUTLINES OF BRITISH FTJNGOLOGY. 9

de Bary makes no mention of this important element in the organisation
of the Myxomycetes. He might have seen in it a farther analogy be-
tween the latter and the testaceous Rhizopods, such as the Difflugiae and
Polythalamia, to which he compares them."

There is this further peculiarity in the Myxogastres, and by which
they are (as far as present observations have gone) distinguished from
all other Fungi, viz., that their spores in germinating produce bodies
of a similar nature to the zoospores of Algae. This fact, however, does
not aid the argument in favour of their being animals, as it would be
equally applicable to prove the animal nature of Zoospores in general,
and would thus prove too much.

In the chapter devoted to the habitats of Fungi, Mr. Berkeley re-
fers to the curious moulds which are found upon dead fish.* He says,
p. 29: —

"I am not at liberty to reckon as Fungi the curious moulds which grow on dead
fish, making them conspicuous, as they float on the surface of the water, by the foggy
halo which surrounds them. These productions differ so essentially in their mode of
reproduction from Fungi in general, that at present it would be rash to speak too posi-
tively about them ; but, inasmuch as their peculiar characters seem to depend entirely
upon the degree of moisture to which they are exposed, there is some reason to hesitate,
and to wait for further information. I have no doubt that the mould which is so com-
mon on flies in autumn, oozing out, as it were, between their abdominal rings, is a mere
condition of one of these anomalous productions."

And, again, at p. 53: —

" If those moulds which infect fish or aquatic vegetables, as Leptomitus, Saprolegnia,
&c, when immersed in water, be truly Fungi, we should have a more perfect type of
impregnation than is presented by the supposed Antheridia — at least, one more nearly
resembling that in animals ; but we are not at liberty to assume their affinity to Fungi,
and for the present they must be left amongst the Alga?, to which they approximate
closely as regards their reproductive organs."

From these extracts we infer that Mr. Berkeley is unwilling to re-
sign Saprolegnia and its allies to the algologists, and that he entertains
some hope of their being reclaimed for the Fungi. And yet, if Pring-
sheim's observations are correct,! ^ *s difficult to see how these produc-
tions can be looked upon otherwise than as Algae. The process of im-
pregnation, which has been traced with great accuracy, corresponds in
its phases so exactly with that occurring in undoubted algae, such as
Vaucheria, Sphaeroplea, and Coleochaete, that the nature of the Sapro-
legnieae seems hardly any longer doubtful. De Bary's observations, al-*
though confessedly not so complete as those of Pringsheim, tend, as far

* We may observe that these moulds affect living as well as dead fish*, especially
when the former are kept in a confined space. Without vouching for the remedy, we
may state, that we were informed, this summer, by a working gardener, that he had
treated the diseased fish successfully by administering carbonate of soda internally.

t " Beitrage zur Morphologie und Systematic der Algen." Die Saprolegnieen, Jahr-
biicher fur wissenchaftliche Botanik. Vol. i., p. 284.

VOL. i. — x. h. R. C

10 REVIEWS.

as they go, to confirm Pringsheim's account.* We should like also to
know the grounds of Mr. Berkeley's opinion, that the mould on flies is
only a condition of one of the Saprolegniese. Cohn, Lebert, Braun, and
Fresenius, all treat it as an admitted Fungus. f We believe it to be the
fact that the bodies of flies, when immersed in water, have not been ob-
served to produce the mould, whereas, in such a situation, they fre-
quently do produce species of Saprolegnia, but this is hardly sufficient
evidence to establish any necessary connexion between the mould and
the algae.

Amongst the diseases caused by Fungi (including, amongst others,
dry-rot, the vine mildew, the potato murrain, and many others), ergot
holds a prominent place. It affects grains of rye, barley, wheat, and
many other grasses, rendering the ears, to use a popular term, "spurred."
A good deal has been written, from time to time, on the nature of this
disease, and very different opinions entertained ; but there is now hardly
any doubt that the so-called " ergotted grains" are, in fact, of the na-
ture of a sclerotium, that is to say, that they consist of compact fungoid
mycelium. It is not, perhaps, clear whether the individual grains of ergot
are purely fungoid, or whether any portion of the albumen of the seed re-
mains intermixed with the mycelium. It would seem that Mr. Berkeley
inclines to the latter view, for he speaks (p. 73) of the white substance of
the seed being converted by the fungus into a firm mass; but we
understand Tulasne's opinion to be, J that the seed is entirely displaced
by the fungus, and that the grains (so to speak) of ergot are altogether
foreign bodies, occupying the place of the seed. M. Tulasne was the
first to notice the fact that the grains of ergot give rise eventually to a
species of Cordyceps, and that the growth of the Cordyceps may be
brought about by sowing the grains of ergot in common garden mould,
or keeping them in damp moss. There are still some doubtful points
connected with the mode in which the ergot attacks the cereals, and
relative to the growth of the Cordyceps from the ergot, which require
further observation. Tulasne seems to be of opinion that there is a dif-
ference between the ergot which attacks rye, and that which affects
other grasses, such as the ergot of the common reed. There is, no doubt,
considerable difference in size and appearance between the ergot of rye
and the ergot of Phragmites ; and there is as striking a difference be-
tween the species of Cordyceps, which is usually produced by ergot of
rye, and that which is usually produced by ergot of Phragmites. But
then this difficulty arises : — observations subsequent to Tulasne' s§ have

* " Einige neue Saprolegnieen, Jithrbiicher fur wiss. Bot.," vol. ii., p. 1G9.

f See Cohn in " Nov. Act. Acad. Nat. Cur." 1855 ; " Fresen. Bot. Zeit.," December
1856; Lebert in " Virchow's Arcbiv.," vol. xii., Heft. 1, and in "Neue Denkschrifteu
der allg. Schweizerischen Ges. fur die ges. Naturwi.-senchaften," band v., 1857 ; Frese-
nius in " Abhandl. der Senckenbergischer Nat. Gesellschaft," band xii., 1858, p. 201 ;
"Braun AlgSB unicellulares, Lips." 1855, p. 105.

+ "Ann. des Sc. Nat," 3rd Ser., vol. xx., p. 11.

§ See "Bot. Zeitung," Feb. 2, 1855, and "Quart. Journ. of Microscopical Science,"
vol. v , p. 133.

shown that the ergot of Phragmites produces not only its own peculiar
species of Cordyceps {Cordyceps microcephala), but also occasionally the
same species which is usually produced by ergot of rye, viz., Cordyceps
purpurea. M. Westendorp, moreover, has lately found ergot of rye
producing, instead of Cordyceps purpurea , a totally different fungus,
viz., Agaricus papillatus (Batsch).* It has been attempted to explain
M. Westendorp's observations by the suggestion of the accidental pre-
sence of the spores of the Agaric; and this explanation might have been
accepted, if a stray specimen or two only of the Agaric had appeared ;
but the ergot in question produced a continuous crop of the Agaric for
several weeks, pointing to more than an accidental connexion between
the two. Upon the question as to the nature of the supposed spermatia
observed by Tulasne in the early stage of ergot, some remarks of Bo-
norden, in the " BotanischeZeitung," for April 9, 1858, should be con-
sidered. They tend to show that the spermatia in question are not
sexual organs, but of the nature of spores.

We have but little space to comment upon the systematic portion of
Mr. Berkeley's work. His extensive and intimate acquaintance with
the whole tribe of fungi affords a sufficient guarantee for its complete-
ness. The arrangement of the orders and genera is according to the
author's plan inLindley's " Vegetable Kingdom," and the " Introduction
to Cryptogamic Botany." As far as the Hymenomycetes are concerned,
the system is nearly that of Fries, as given in the " Epicrisis Systema-
tis Mycologici." The plan of the " Systema Mycologicum" itself would,
perhaps, have afforded greater facilities for students, but the adoption of
it would have been a step backwards. At the same time, we should
strongly recommend beginners to use the present work in conjunction
with the former treatise, in the fifth volume of the "English Flora."
The genera propounded in the "Epicrisis," although perfectly natural,
and in most cases easily recognized by practised mycologists from dif-
ference of habit, are exceedingly difficult to identify from their written
characters. Taking, for instance, the genera Agaricus and Kussula, a
very little practice will enable a student to distinguish the two; but if
he were driven to the written characters, he would find the main dis-
tinction to reside in the structure of the trama, a difference which can-
not be made out without careful microscopical investigation.

Mr. Berkeley admits Fries' genus Nyctalis amongst the Hymenomy-
cetes, calling attention to De Bary's observations as to what the latter
considered a secondary form of fruit. f Since the publication of De
Bary's paper, Tulasne has written upon the subject, first in the " Comptes
Rendus" (January 2, I860), and subsequently, at greater length, in the
last number of the "Annales des Sciences jS"aturelles."j He unhe-
sitatingly denies the correctness of De Bary's observations ; and his re-

* " Bulletin de l'Acad. Ro}'al. de Belgique," vol. vii., p. 80.
f See " Botanische Zeitung," 1859, pp. 385, 393.
% 4 Ser., vol. xiii., p. 5.

12 REVIEWS.

marks are so important and interesting, that we subjoin a portion of
them. M. Tulasne says —

"The type of the genus Nyctalis is Agaricus parasiticus of Bulliard, a Fungus
which very frequently nourishes in its parenchyma another Fungus, parasitic upon it,
viz., Asterophora agaricicola (Cord.), Asterotrichum Ditmaii (Bonord.). Its appear-
ance is then so altered, as to have led to its being mistaken by Bulliard himself, who
called it by a name different from its former one, viz., Agaricus lycoperdoides. This
error has been repeated by Ditmar, and aggravated by Fries, who has imagined that he
has found in Agaricus lycoperdoides (Bull ) matter for many different species. More
recently, however, Vittadini, Corda, Klotzsch, Berkeley, and other authors, have recog-
nised two different vegetable entities in Agaricus lycoperdoides (Bull.), and we have
adopted their opinion.* M. De Bary, on the contrary, not only revives Bulliard's view
in distinguishing Ag. lycoperdoides (Bull.) from Ag. parasiticus (Bull.) ; but he main-
tains that the Asterophora (Asterotrichum, Bonord), the presence of which, in our opi-
nion, constitutes the only difference between the first and the second, so far from being
a foreign production or vegetable parasite, is nothing less than a secondaty reproductive
apparatus proper to Ag. lycoperdoides (Bull.) (Nyctalis asterophora, Fr., Bary). In
support of his opinion, he alleges that Ag. parasiticus (Bull.) also possesses an analogous
apparatus, and that both in the one and the other Agaric this subsidiary fructification is
extremely constant, and always similarly arranged. He admits, however, that the
latter excludes the normal or reproductive apparatus, very frequently in Ag. lycoper-
doides (Bull.), and always, it would seem, in Ag. parasiticus (Bulk). He admits also that
the secondary spores may well be compared to those of certain fungicolous Fungi, such
as Sepedonium, the autonomy and parasitic nature of which he does not venture to
doubt. Further, M. De Bary does not deny that it is generally very difficult to make
out with certainty, even by the most minute microscopic investigation, the portions of
the tissue which belong respectively to the parasite and to its host. This uncertainty,
and still more the many reasons to be derived from analogy, weaken the conclusions of
M. De Bary, If Asterophora agaricicola (Cord.) so much resembles Sepedonium, may it
not, like Sepedonium, be an autonomous parasite, rather than an integral portion of
Agaricus lycoperdoides (Bull.) ; and may not the supposed reproductive apparatus of
Ag. parasiticus (Bull.) constitute another kind of Sepedonium ? It has been objected
that the organisms in question are always developed in the same place and at the same
time, and that they are not met with upon other Agarics ; but are not these very cha-
racters the distinguishing marks of many admitted Agaricine parasites — for instance, of
Sphozria lateritia (Fr ), which is only produced on the hymenium of Ag. deliciosus (L.),
where it causes an almost entire abortion of the gills? Moreover, the supposed second-
ary fructification of Ag. parasiticus so nearly resembles on the one hand that of Astero-
phora, and on the other that of certain Sepedonia, common parasites of the Boleti, as to
destroy all our faith in M. De Bary's hypothesis. In our opinion, the proof of the exist-
ence of a double fructification in the Agarics must be sought for elsewhere.

"Numerous observations have convinced us that Asterophora, Sepedonium, and
Mvcogone are the conidioid condition of species of Sphceria of the genus Hypomyces
(Fr.)."

If M. Tulasne' s views are correct, Sepedonium must be struck out
of the genera of fungi, as also Trichoderma, which he considers to be
only an imperfect state of Hypocrea rufa.

Some few other genera admitted by Mr. Berkeley — for instance,
Micropera, Isaria, Helminthosporium, Piggotia, Coniothecium, Apo-
sphceria, and some others, will probably eventually share the same fate;
but, in the present state of our knowledge, Mr. Berkeley could hardly

* See " Ann. des Sc. Nat." 3rd Series, t. xx. (1853), p. 27, note 2.

THK MAMMALS OF AMOOKLAND. 13

have omitted them, and this is not the place to discuss their autonomy.
Some observations upon these matters will be found in the works re-
ferred to below.*

We do not find in Mr. Berkeley's work any account of the genus
Pilobolus, of which two species, P. crystallinus and P. roridus, have
been found in this country. The omission is, we presume, accidental,
for there has never been any question as to the Piloboli being true
Fungi.

III. — The Mammals of Amookland. — Reisen und Forschungen im
Amur-lande in der Jahren 1854-6, im Auftrage der Kaiserl. Akade-
mie der Wissenschaften zu St. Petersburg, ausgefiihrt und in Yer-
bindung mit mehreren Gelehrten ausgegeben von Dr. Leopold von
Schrenck. Band I., Erste Lieferung. St. Petersburg, 1858.

Had the recent mutiny in India resulted in the expulsion of the British
from the peninsula, little, it has been said, except an unfinished railway
or two, would have remained to bear witness that they had ever been
there. Whatever change the present system of administration may
have made in other respects, we have failed to learn that greater encou-
ragement is likely to be afforded to the investigators of the natural pro-
ducts of India by its new government. Our nearest Continental neigh-
bours have not been so long in possession of the wild country which
forms the southern shores of the Mediterranean, yet the " Exploration
Scientifique d'Algerie" is, we believe, a fait accompli, and affords, at
any rate, a good basis for future workers in the same field. Our trans-
atlantic cousins have still more recently anuexed California and Texas;
but a goodly row of Reports upon the zoology, botany, mineralogy, and
meteorology of these countries have already appeared under the auspices
of their enlightened government ; and were these countries to revert to
barbarism to-morrow, would remain to prove that the civilized races
who temporarily held them had not neglected the opportunity of adding
to the general stock of knowledge of mankind.

Now, it is impossible to value too highly the labour's of Hardwicke,
Hodgson, Blyth, Hooker, Thompson, Jerdon, Tennent, Cantor, and a
host of others, too numerous to mention, who have worked long and
laboriously in investigating the different branches of Indian zoology and
botany ; but we think we have a right to complain that no encou-
ragement has been given on the part of our, Indian rulers to any general
work, such as might embrace the results thus arrived at, and show
what has really been effected towards the working out of the Fauna and
Flora of a country which we hold " in trust for the benefit of mankind."

" Quart, Jour, of Mic. Science," vol. iii., p. 263 ; vol. iv., p. 192; vol. v., p. 126.
" Annales des Sciences Nat.," 3rd Ser., vol. xx., pp. 130-171.
lb., 4th Ser., vol. v., p. 108, and vol. viii., p. 35.
" Philosophical Transactions," 1857, p. 543, et seq.

14 REVIEW*.

One-tenth part of the sums of money lately squandered away in support
of a mission, conducted by certain well-known foreigners, who were for-
tunate enough to secure the patronage of the magnates of Leadenhall-
street, would have sufficed, if judiciously employed, to have more than
wiped off this national reproach.

These remarks may seem somewhat out of place when our subject is
the Fauna of Amoorland, not of Hindostan ; but it should not be con-
cealed that the conduct of the rulers of a nation often termed barba-
rous— and whose efforts to occupy "a more enlarged sphere of useful-
ness" in Eastern Europe are still regarded with fear and trembling, and
were but recently opposed by the force of arms — contrasts, in some respects,
most favourably with that of our own enlightened government. It is
not long ago that the name of the Amoor first became known to British
ears. The fame of the Russian successes in that quarter has bat lately
reached us. Yet the first-fruits of the several expeditions despatched to
explore the natural products of the new acquisitions are already pre-
sented to the world ; and we have little doubt that the publication of
the Fauna and Flora of Amoorland will be completed ere that of British
India is commenced.

Herr von Middendorf's expedition to South-eastern Siberia* had ex-
tended our knowledge of the natural productions of Northern Asia as
far as the Sea of Ochotsk and the upper confluents of the Amoor, so
that the exploration of the countries traversed by the lower portion of
this magnificent river was considered by the Imperial Academy of Sci-
ences of St. Petersburg as the next requisite step. Herr von Schrenck
was accordingly selected for this purpose, and, accompanied by his
scientific staff1, embarked in the autumn of 1853 in an imperial frigate,
specially appointed to convey him to his destination. After a voyage
round Cape Horn, the following Jane found him in Kaintschatka,
whence a corvette was directed to convey the expedition to its final des-
tination. On the 18th of August, 1854, they were accordingly landed
at what was then the military post of Nicolajewsch, at the mouth of the
Amoor; but what, we believe, is now the flourishing capital of the new
government of Amoorland. We need not follow Herr von Schrenck
during the two years which he devoted to the exploration of every part
of Amoorland, including the adjoining island of Sagalin. Suffice it to
say, that he returned to St. Petersburg overland, reaching that capital
in January, 1857, in safety, with his collections, after encountering
many perils and hardships in the winter's voyage up to the Amoor,
which, from Nicolajewsch to ISTertschinkoi Sawod — the point where the
navigation ceases, and the land -journey begins — lasted more than five
months.

Besides the materials thus obtained for the investigation of the
Fauna of Amoorland, Herr von Schrenck has availed himself of the col-

* Sec Reise in der ausserten Norden und Osten Siberiens, &c, 4 Bde, St. Peter;
burgh, 1847-59.

THE MAMMALS OF AM 00 It LAND. 15

lections made by two other travellers, Herr Maximowicz,* a botanical
collector in the employ of the Imperial Botanical Gardens of St. Peters-
burg, who was also -travelling in that country, from 1854 to 1856 ; and
Herr Maack, who made an expedition from Transbaikalia, in 1855, to
the mouth of the A moor, and back.

We shall now proceed to consider the species of Mammals thus as-
certained to be inhabitants of Amoorland, in the order in which Herr
von Schrenck has arranged them in the first volume of his work, adding
a notice of the most important facts which he has recorded concerning
each of them. In some cases, it will be observed, the names have been
inserted on the faith of Pallas and older explorers, and the results ar-
rived at are purely of a negative character.

1. Ursus arctos. — The bear of the Amoorland is referable to the varietas
Beringianaoi Middendorf, which occurs on the coasts of the Sea of Ochotsk,
but is not specifically separable from the European Ursus arctos. Tem-
minck's statement that the bear of Jesso and Sachalin is U ferox (the
Grizzly Bear of North America) is erroneous.

2. Ursus maritimus. — The Polar Bear, Ursus maritimus, was not re-
cognized by the natives as found on the coast of the continent, or of the
island of Sachalin, though Siebold has stated that he received indica-
tions of its occasional occurrence on the shores of the Japanese province
Jetsigo.

3. Meles taxus A darker and more yellowish variety (amurensis)

of the Badger of Amoorland, was found to be connected, on an examina-
tion of a series of eight examples, with the European Meles taxus. Yon
Schrenck thinks that the Japanese Meles anakuma of Temminck is pro-
bably nothing more than a further variety of the same species.

4. Gulo borealis presents the same variation of coloration as in Eu-
rope.

5. Mustela zibellina. — The Sable is much sought after here, as else-
where, for its fur, but is still met with in all parts of Amoorland. Von
Schrenck suspects that Temminck' s M. braclujura is only a variety of
this very valuable animal, founded upon an imperfect skin.

6. Mustela martes. — Pallas' statement (" SpicilegiaZoologica," xiv.,
p. 57) of the occurrence of this Marten in Amoorland was not con-
firmed.

7. Mustela sibirrica, P.allas. — Spread over the whole country.

8. Mustela erminea. — Also common over the whole of Amoorland.

9. Mustela vulgaris. — Only one example obtained, and certainly
much rarer than the ermine.

10. Lutra vulgaris. — The otter is found throughout the country, but
nowhere common, being much sought after by the natives for its fur,
which is highly prized by the Mandshurians and Chinese. Lutra chi-
nensis, Gray, L. indica, Gray, and Lutra nair, F. Cuvier, are suspected
to be only varieties of the same species.

* The results of this gentleman's expedition are published in the Memoirs of the
[mperial Academy, under the title " Primitise Florae Amurensis," vol. ix., p. 1, et seq.

REVIEWS.

11. Lutra aterrima. — Pallas' Otter-like animal, described by the
great traveller as Viverra aterrima, is conjectured to have been a va-
riety of the common otter, Lutra vulgaris.

12. Fnhydris marina. — The Sea-otter, which is stated by Siebold
to occur occasionally in Japan, appears to be known to the inhabitants
of the southern coast of Sachalin, but to be far from commonly met
with.

13. Canis lupus. — The wolf of Amoorland is considered by Von
Schrenck to be quite identical with the European Canis lupus. Tem-
minck's Canis hodophilax, under which title the authors of the " Fauna
Japonica" separate the Japanese wolf, is believed to be likewise undis-
tinguishable from the same species.

14. Canis alpinus. — Only one example of this little-known moun-
tain-wolf, first discovered by Pesteref in 1794, was obtained by Von
Schrenck' s expedition. Its specific validity is fully recognized.

15. Canis vulpes. — The Pox, in all its many varieties of colouring, is
very common in Amoorland. Its fur is a regular article of traffic with
the natives, next in importance to that of the Sable and Otter.

16. Canis lag opus. — No traces of the Polar Fox were met with even
in Sachalin ; and it is suspected that Siebold' s notice of this species in-
habiting the Japanese Kuriles is incorrect.

17. Canis procyonides. — A very extended notice and elaborate de
scription is given of this singular species of Canis, which was only pre-
viously known from the insufficient accounts of Gray and Temminck.
Herr von Schrenck shows that the names Cams procyonides (/) and
Canis viverrinus are really referable to one and the same species, which
varies much in summer and winter pelage, and is of opinion that the
differences in the dentition are not such as to necessitate the generic se-
paration of this animal from the true Canes, as has been proposed by
Temminck.*

18. Canis familiar is.

19. Felis lynx. — The true Felis lynx of Europe is found through-
out the wooded districts of Amoorland.

20. Felis tigris. — The existence of the Tiger, popularly supposed to
be confined to the hot jungles of India, as a permanent resident on the
Amoor, is one of the most remarkable facts known in geographical dis-
tribution. Near the mouth of the TJssuri (in north latitude 48°), the
Tiger is " not only not a scarce visitant, but an ordinary resident in the
land in summer and winter, commonly met with, and frequently de-
structive to mankind, and to cattle." It has even crossed the ice further
north, in latitude 52°, and penetrated into the island of Sachalin, al-
though here only to be considered as an occasional intruder, f

21. Felis irbis. — The Ounce is not so common as the Tiger near

* In Tijdschr. voor natuurl Geschied. v., p. 285, as Nyctereuxes viverrinus.
f Confer Brandt'? " Untersuchungen ueber die geographische Verbreitung des Tigers,"
&c. Mem. Acad. Sc. St. Petersburg, 6me ser., vol. viii.

THE MAMMALS OF AMOORLAND. 17

the mouths of the Ussuri and in other parts of Amoorland. It extends
into the island of Sachalin. In many districts it is not distinguished
by the natives from the Tiger.

22. FeJis domestica.

23. Erinaceus europeeus. — A single skin obtained near Anjun, on
the Amoor, proved to belong to E. europeeus, or a variety amurensis,
and not to the Siberian long-eared species E. auritus.

24. Erinaceus auritus. — Not observed, though probably a more
northern species, and to be met with on the upper branches of the
Amoor.

25. Sorcx vulgaris is the commonest Shrew in Amoorland.

26. Sorex pygmceus is also found on the Amoor, and extends into
Sachalin.

27. Yespertilio (Vesperus) boreal is. — One example of this bat was
obtained.

28. Vespertilio my st acinus.

29. Vespertilio daubentonii.-rKeri von Schrenck appears to doubt
the real specific difference between these closely-allied species of Ves-
pertilio, of both of which examples were obtained on the Amoor.

30. PUcotus auritus. — One specimen obtained agrees with European
examples.

31. Pteromys volans is found in the wooded districts of Amoorland,
and extends over the interior of Sachalin, where it resorts to the Birch-
trees [Bet id a ermatmi).

32. Sciurus vulgaris. — Common in Amoorland, varying much in
summer and winter pelage, being dark grey in winter, and dark brown,
sometimes nearly black in summer. Temminck's Sciurus lis, from
Japan, is considered a questionable species, as S. vulgaris extends all
over Sachalin.

33. Tamias striatus. — Yery common.

34. Tamias uthensis, of Pallas, is suspected to be a black variety of
T. striatus.

35. Spermophilus eversmanni. — Three specimens were obtained in
Amoorland of this Spermophilus, which appears to replace S. citillus,
of Europe, thoughout North-eastern Asia.

36. Artomys bobac was not observed in Amoorland, but an example
was obtained by Herr Maack, on the upper Amoor.

37. Mus decumanus The " Hanoverian Bat," as Mr. "Waterton de-
lights to call it, has occupied the whole of the Amoorland, and already
extended itself into the upper portion of the territory. It probably ar-
rived by ships on the coast first, and penetrated thence, as it is not
known in Siberia, though frequent in Japan and China.

38. Mm musculus has followed its larger brother in its invasion of
Amoorland.

39. Arvicola (ffypudceus) Amurensis nov. sp. — Of this new Vole one
example was obtained by Herr von Schrenck, at Nicolajewsck, in Sep-
tember, 1854. The nearest ally seems to be A. glareolus, of Europe,
of which it may be considered as the eastern representative.

VOL. I. X. H. E. J)

18 REVIEWS.

40. Arvicola rutilus, Pallas.- Several examples of this North-
European species of Yole were obtained on the Amoor.

41. Arvicola ampMMus. — A single specimen of this European Yole,
obtained by Herr Maximowicz, belongs to the short-tailed variety, A.
terrestris, which is considered by De Selys, and other authorities, as a
separate species. Herr von Schrenck himself observed others of the
same species.

42. Arvicola saxatilis, Pallas. — Full and accurate details are given
of this Yole, which has not been recognised since the time of its de-
scriber, Pallas, from a single example obtained by Herr Maximowicz
on the Amoor. Pallas gives Transbaikalia and Mongolia as its habitat.

43. Arvicola maximowiczii nov. sp. — This new species of Yole is also
due to the researches of Herr Maximowicz, whose name it bears. A
single specimen only was obtained in October, 1856, on the Upper
Amoor. Arvicola maximo'wiczii belongs to the typical group of the
genus, as arranged by Blasius, being allied to A. arvalis (Pall.), and
A. campestris (Blasius), and more nearly still to A. subterraneus of De
Selys, though having rather longer ears.

44. Siphoneus aspalax, Pallas. — A single example of this singular
animal, obtained on the Upper Amoor, agrees well with Pallas' Siberian
species. No trace of it was met with on the Lower Amoor.

45. Castor fiber. — No traces of the beaver were met with on the
Amoor or its confluents, though it is said that the Busso-American Pur
Company obtained a skin in 1853-4, at their temporary station at the
south end of Sachalin.

46. Lepus variabilis. — The Polar Hare is very common in Amoor-
land and Sachalin, adopting in winter the pure white dress (with the
exception of the black ears), as in the typical European form.

47. Lagomys hyperboreus. — A pair of Lagomyes, obtained by Herr
Maack in Amoorland, are considered to belong to this little-known Pal-
lasian species. A comparison of examples from other parts of northern
Asia seems to show that there are several varieties in the colouring of
this animal, which appears to be the only Pika inhabiting this district.

48. Sus scrofa. — The wild hog of the Amoor seems specifically iden-
tical with the European Sus scrofa. No difference to speak of was
found between two skulls of young individuals from Amoorland and
others from the Caucasus. Brownish-black examples are spoken of as
having been observed ; but this colour is also sometimes to be seen in
European specimens.

49. Ovis ((Egocerus) montana* — No traces could be found of this

* We are very much disposed to question the fact of this Oris being identical with the
Ovis montana of North America. It is Ovis nivicola of Eschscholtz. Middendorf gives
the spruce partridge of Canada ( Tetrao canadensis) as occurring in Northern Asia ;
but his examples, on further investigation, were proved to belong to quite a different spe-
cies (Tetrao falcipennis). The forms of the higher northern latitudes of the eastern and
western hemispheres, though very similar, are, except in the polar regions, usually speci-
ficallv distinct.

THE MAMMALS OF AMOORLAND. 19

wild sheep, which, according to Middeudorf ("SibirischeReise," p. 116),
occurs in the coast-mountain chain of the Sea of Ochotsk, and might
therefore be naturally supposed to inhabit also the ranges of Amoor-
land.

50. Ovis aries. — In domesticity.

5 1 . Antilope crispa. — A pair of horns, obtained from the natives on
the Lower Amoor, seem to belong to this Japanese species, which is said
to occur in the coast- chain of Amoorland.

52. Bos taurus. — In domesticity.

53. Ifoschus moschiferus. — The Musk-deer is found in the mountain-
ous regions of Amoorland, and occurs also in Sachalin.

54. Cervus capreolus. — Dr. von Schrenck agrees with Middendorf,
after comparing examples of the Roe from Siberia and Amoorland with
those of Europe, in considering Pallas' Cervus pygargus as merely a
variety inseparable specifically from the European C. capreolus.

55. Cervus tarandus. — The Rein-deer occurs wild in the northern
parts of Amoorland, and commonly in Sachalin, and is also a domestic
animal among the nomadic Tungusians.

56. Cervus elaphus. — The Red deer of Amoorland is rather larger in
size than the European, and of brighter and gayer colouring in summer
and in winter. As is the case with the Roe deer, it does not appear to
extend into the island of Sachalin.

57. Cervus aloes. — The Elk is most common on the Lower Amoor,
resorting to the dense marshy thickets. It likewise does not seem to
occur in Sachalin.

58. Equus caballus. ") T -, , • .,
cn -J- ■ > In domesticity.

59. Jiquus asmus. J J

60. Trichecus rosmwrus. — The teeth of the Walrus, received from
the north, are an article of commerce among the natives.

61. Phoca nummularis. — This Japanese seal is common on the coast,
and ascends the mouths of the Amoor.

62. Phoca barbata, Mull.

63. Phoca ochotensis (Pallas). — These two seals are also found on
the coast. The little P. ochotensis very seldom enters the mouths of
the river.

64. Phoca equestris, Pall. — A skin of this scarce seal was also ob-
tained in the Gulf of Tartary ; and full details concerning this little -
known animal are furnished from four examples, obtained by Herr
Wosnessenski on the eastern coast of Kamschatka.

65. Otaria ursina. — Pieces of the skin of this animal were often
seen in the hands of the natives. It occurs" onthe coasts of the southern
half of Sachalin, and on those of the seas of Ochotsk and Tartary.

66. Lelphinapterus leucas (Pall.) — Ascends the Amoor regularly,
upon the breaking up of the ice, and penetrates to a distance of 400
wersts up the stream.

67. Balceniptera longimana.

68. Balcena australis, — These two cetaceans are probably those
which occur on the coast.

20 KEVIEWS.

Having excepted out of these sixty-eight species the domestic animals,
and those concerning which the evidence is of a negative character, there
remain about fifty-eight, which we may consider to be the number belong-
ing to the " Mammal-fauna" of Amoorland, as far as we are at present
acquainted with it. Let us see, therefore, what deductions we can make
as to the general character of the Fauna of this country from these ele-
ments. As Dr. Yon Schrenck himself observes, our first remark will be
one of surprise at the ill-assorted neighbours which, in some instances,
seem to be brought together in Amoorland. A Bengal tiger, even with
so limited a knowledge of the geographical distribution of animals as we
might suppose such a carnivore to possess, must be rather surprised at
finding himself, as he swims across the Amoor, brought face to face with
the northern seals, Phoca nummularis, and P. barbata, and the White-
fish of the arctic seas (Delphinapterus leucas.) Neither can his wonder be
diminished, when, on crossing the narrow strait which separates the
island of Sachalin from the main, he is compelled to subsist nearly en-
tirely upon the flesh of the rein-deer ( Cervus tarandus), a beast only
found wild in Europe in the extreme north, and which will not live in
our Zoological Gardens, but which on this side of the great Continent
descends to the latitude of Paris. The little Polar Pika, or tailless hare,
is also met with in Amoorland, down to the latitude of 48°, while the
wild boar ranges northward beyond latitude 52°. But putting these
apparent anomalies aside for a moment, it is very instructive to observe
how similar in general characters the Fauna of Amoorland is to that of
Europe. The difference, taken at it greatest amount, is hardly more than
that of species. Out of the whole number of fifty-eight mammals of
Amoorland, as above recorded, no less than thirty-four seem to be iden-
tical with European species ; and most of the others belong to genera
which have European representatives. The nineteen species not found
in Europe appear to be the following: —

Mustela sibirica, Lagomys hyperboreus,

Enhydris marina, Antilope crispa,

Canis alpinus, Moschus moschiferus,

,, procyonides, Phoca nummularis,

Felis tigris, ,, barbata,

,, irbis, ,, ochotensis,

Spermophilus Eversmanni, ,, equestris,

Arvicola amurensis, Otaria ursina,

,, saxatilis, Bakena australis.

, , maximowiczii,
Of these, Enhydris, Moschus, and Otaria, belong to genera common to the
polar regions of Asia and America, and so perhaps show some relation-
ship of the Fauna of Amoorland to that of the more northern parts of
the New World. Of this, it must be recollected, Japan furnishes us
with further and more remarkable instances, — a second species of the
singular talpine genus Urotrichus* having lately been discovered in

* Urotrichus gibbsii, Baird. Examples of this highly interesting Insectivore have

THE MAMMALS OF AMOORLAND. 21

North America, and the nearest ally of the celebrated Sieboldia, or so-
called gigantic salamander of Japan, being undoubtedly the Protonopsis
liorrida of the United States.* The antilope {A. crispa), is also probably
more nearly allied to the American Haplocerus americanus, than to any other
form of the group. "With these exceptions, and that of Cam's procyonides —
an animal, according to Herr Yon Schrenck's elaborate investigations,
hardly differing from Canis in its dentition sufficiently for generic separa-
tion, but certainly belonging to a different sub-group, and remarkably
abnormal in general external fades — the forms show, certainly, very great
resemblance to those of Northern Europe. Amoorland, in fact, is insepara-
able from that great zoological region to which the rest of Northern Asia,
Europe, and Africa, north of the Atlas, alike belong, and to which the
name " Pakearctic" has been appropriately applied, as it embraces the
whole northern portion of the Old World. Agassiz's ingenious parallel,f
in which he attempts to prove that the races of mankind correspond in
their variations with those of the zoologies of the countries occupied by
them, completely fails in this instance. Though we might perhaps
admit the existence of a circumpolar zoological region, occupied by a race
of men ethnologically distinct, the areas tenanted by two very different
races — the Caucasians of the west, and the Mand-choos of the east — will
admit of no separation on zoological grounds. This has already been
abundantly shown to be the case, as regards the classes of birds and rep-
tiles. % Temminck and Siebold have long ago enlarged on the similarity
of the Eauna of Japan to that of Europe. "Waterhouse's Tables for the
geographical division of the Rodents, which he has worked out so labo-
riously, bring Europe and Northern Asia together. Von Schrenck's
evidence, we maintain, as given in the present work, tends altogether in
the same direction.

It remains, in conclusion, that we should call attention to the excel-
lent way in which Herr von Schrenck has worked out the materials he
has collected. The descriptions given of the new and doubtful species
are in all cases very full, and descend to the most minute particulars.
Great care has been devoted to tracing the range of each individual species
throughout Northern Asia, where facts were ascertainable, upon which
such deductions could be drawn. The native names applied to the animals
by the different tribes are all stated, and many interesting details are
given concerning their habits. In short, the volume appears to be no less
creditable to the author than it has already been shown to be to the Go-
vernment to whose fostering care science is indebted for this very accept-
able contribution to our knowledge of geographical zoology.

lately been obtained by the engineers surveying the boundary-line of British Columbia,

and are now deposited in the British Museum.

* The relations between the Flora of N. E. Asia and America are, we believe much

more intimate.

t Seethe introduction to Nolt and Gliddon's "Types of Mankind."

\ Sclater in "Journ, Proc Linn. Soc. Zool.," ii , p. 134; Giinther, in ''Proc Zool.

Soc," 185*, p. 373.

22 EEVIEWS.

IV. — Natuegeschichte dee Daphniden* (Natural History of the Daph-
nidae). By Prof. Franz. Leydig. Eeviewed by J. Lubbock, Esq.

Feom the time of Leeuwenhoek to the present, no group of Crustacea has
excited more interest, or been more studied by naturalists, than the
genus Daphnia, or, perhaps, to speak more precisely, the Family Daph-
niidse. So far, however, from exhausting the subject, these investiga-
tions have, in the present case, as in all other matters of science, opened
out a still more interesting field for future labours, and suggested more
questions than they have answered.

In the present memoir, Prof. Leydig gives a description of all the
known species, and an interesting essay on their anatomy and embry-
ology, the whole being illustrated by excellent figures. We are also
made acquainted, for the first time, with several new species, and espe-
cially with a very curious new form, called by Prof. Leydig, Bythotre-
phes longimanus, and found by him in the stomach of Coregonus Wart-
manni, of which, indeed, it appears in some localities to form the chief
nourishment. And yet, though it must be so abundant, Prof. Leydig
was unable to obtain a single specimen from the lake itself; but as the
Coregonus is generally found at considerable depths, he infers that per-
haps the Bythotrephes also seldom comes to the surface. The female only
has as yet been discovered. The animal has the large antenna?, and the
large eye as in Polyphemus, but the latter has longer lenses. The recep-
tacle for the eggs is almost spherical, and so distinctly separated from the
rest of the body, that it much resembles the abdomen of some spiders.
There are four pairs of legs : the first is very much elongated, double as
long as the rest, and five- jointed ; the other three are not unlike those of
Polyphemus. The abdomen also is very remarkable, and ends in a spine,
half as long again as the rest of the body ; and which, with the long
anterior legs, the large eye, and the spherical receptacle, gives the whole
animal a most peculiar appearance.

Since I have [had the advantage of reading Professor Leydig' s
work, I have had no opportunity of again examining the animals, and
am therefore not now in a position to offer any new observations of my
own with reference to those points as to which we differ ; it seemed
to me, however, that it was right to put my name to this review, be-
cause it will be necessary for me to refer more than once to my paper
on Daphnia (Phil. Trans. 1857) ; and because, while fully admitting
the great value and interest of the present work, I shall still be com-
pelled to differ from Prof. Leydig on one or two important points.

Prof. Leydig adheres to the opinion that the agamic eggs of Articu-
lata are internal buds, or as he would perhaps prefer to call them
' 'germs" (Keime), and not to be confounded with true eggs ; although
he admits that in the Polyzoa and Rotatoria the so-called buds agree

* 4to. Tubingen, 1860, pp. 252.

LEYDIG ON DAPHNIID^;. 23

in all essential particulars with the ordinary eggs of other animals.
This, however, he denies to be true of the agamic eggs in the Aphidse,
Coccidae, and Daphniida?, in all of which he denies that any Purkinjean
vesicle exists. In the " Philosophical Transactions" for 1857, however,
I have clearly described and figured the Purkinjean vesicle, both in the
agamic, or so-called summer eggs, and also in the ephippial, or, as
they are called, the winter eggs, of Daphnia, In the " Linnean Trans-
actions" for 1858, vol. xxii., part ih\, Professor Huxley has given an
excellent account of the agamic egg of Aphis, and has figured a cell,
which is evidently the Purkinjean vesicle, with its macula ; though
with his usual caution he does not actually so call it, but merely
says that it " corresponds with the germinal vesicle and spot of an
ovum," and that "it is not distinguishable from a germinal vesicle."
As regards Coccus, Prof. Leuckarfc* and If independently described
the Purkinjean vesicle and spot. And as regards most of the other
insects in which agamic reproduction has been observed, the Purkin-
jean vesicle has been observed by Prof. Leuckart in Chermes and Psyche,
and by me in Cynips.J Moreover, it is arguing in the very narrowest
of circles, to maintain — lstly, that the agamic eggs are buds, and not
true eggs, because they contain no Purkinjean vesicle or spot; and
2ndly, that the vesicle and spot which they do contain are not a true
Purkinjean vesicle and spot, because the reproductive body is a bud,
and not an egg. We have, however, I think, a crucial case in the hive-
bee, and some other Hymenoptera and Lepidoptera, in which the e°-<?s

are capable of developing either with or without impregnation a fact

which must surely convince even the most sceptical that, though as a
matter of convenience it is desirable to adopt Prof. Huxley's name
"pseudovum," there is no necessary distinction between a pseudovum
and an ovum, or true egg.

Prof. Leydig does not, therefore, I think, express the present state
of our knowledge, when he asserts that the agamic eggs of Daphnia,
Coccus, and Aphis, possess no Purkinjean vesicle. It is, of course, open
to Prof. Leydig to dispute the accuracy of the observations made by
Leuckart, Huxley, and myself; but it is, I think, to be regretted that he
should have referred only to his own previous and incorrect observa-
tions, and have ignored all which has since been written on the subject.
Prof. Leydig is so eminent a naturalist, that if he still adheres to his old
opinions, we should be much interested to know the reason why ; but
such a supposition seems scarcely reconcilable with other passages of
his work. Thus, in the description of Dida crystaUina (p. 100), he
says — " Die Eier bilclen sich vom spitzen,' umgeknickten Ende her ; dort
sind die kleinsten Eikeime, bestehend aus dem Keimblaschen mit soli-
dem Keimfleck, und einer hellen, das Keimblaschen einschliessenden

* TJntersuchungen zur Naturlehre, 1858. f " Phil. Trans.," 1858.

X I have already pointed out that, as regards Coccus, Prof. Leydig appears to have
generally examined his specimens in dilute acetic acid. This destroys the Purkinjean
vesicle, and is, therefore, prohably, the cause of his mistake.

24 REVIEWS.

TJmhiillungsmasse.'' Again, speaking of Daphnia pulex, he describes
the youngest eggs as consisting "aus dera Keimblaschen sammt heller
Umhiillungsmasse," he uses almost the same words with reference to
the young eggs of D. magna ; and in speaking of the agamic eggs of D.
longispina, he expressly states that he has been unable to ascertain what
becomes of the germinal spot after the vitelline mass has quitted the
o^ary.

These statements seem almost to justify the inference that, after
writing the general chapter on the reproduction of Daphnia, he had
altered his opinion as to the absence of the Purkinjean vesicle, but had
forgotten to modify his statement.

Of course, as we find that some eggs must be impregnated before
they can produce an embryo, while others can do so without requiring
any external influence, it is clear that these two sorts of eggs cannot be
in all respects alike, since identical bodies must have identical proper-
ties. Pseudova, however, share all the known essential characters of
true eggs ; and it would therefore be very interesting to determine, if
possible, on what difference of structure this difference of power de-
pends. This, however, is not the only interesting question which we
have to solve, since in some cases, — as, for instance, in the hive bee, as
just mentioned, — although the egg is capable of development without
impregnation, still impregnation exercises an important difference in it
(in this case changing the sex of the resulting embryo), and it would
be in the highest degree interesting to ascertain how this change is
effected.

According to Prof. Leydig, each brood of agamic eggs forms in the
ovary one great mass, which is only divided into separate eggs after its
entry into the receptacle. It seemed to me, on the contrary, that each
egg was produced separately, round a separate Purkinjean vesicle,
although no chorion being at first present, and the egg masses being to
a certain extent pressed together, the boundary of each egg cannot
always be defined.

In Daphnia he describes a vitellarium separate from the germinarium,
the former occupying the anterior, the latter the posterior part of the
ovary. This is, however (p. 100), not the case in Sida crystallina; and
although, as I had already mentioned, the ephippial egg (I believe)
always, and the agamic ones very often, arise at the posterior part of
the ovary, still I did not observe any separation of the ovary into two
parts, so distinct from one another as they are described to be by Prof.
Leydig. The various parts constituting the yolk always seemed to me
to be developed round the Purkinjean vesicle, as is usual in Crustacea;
and we can divide the yolk into " Bildungsd otter" and " Nahrungsdotter"
only in the limited sense in which this division holds good for the yolk
of all animals.

In Daphnia longispina, Pr. Leydig has made the interesting obser-
vation, that from the yoke emerge small vesicles, which he considers to
be homologous with the so-called " Richtungsblaschen" so generally
present in the development of Mollusca and other animals. This fact,

LEYDIG ON DAPHNIID.E. 25

if correctly interpreted, is very interesting, since the occurrence of the
directive vesicle in groups so essentially distinct would tend to prove
that it is a structure of importance, and not a mere particle of the yolk
excluded to give more space to the rest. It is also important, because
it forms another bond of union between two groups so widely separated
as are the Mollusca and the Articulata.

Another point of great importance is the determination of the pre-
sence of yolk- division in the egg. Up to the present time, this process
had been satisfactorily determined, so far as the Crustacea were con-
cerned, only in certain Cyclopidae and Ergasilidse, to which, apparently,
we may now add Daphnia Irachiata and Polyphemus o cuius, both of
which species seem, from the transparency of their yolk to be specially
well adapted for embryological examination.

From finding many empty eggshells in the receptacles of specimens,
which also contain healthy embryos, Prof. Leydig infers that, as a rule,
many of the agamic eggs perish during their development; but the ob-
servation need not lead to any such conclusion, since the eggshells are
always cast off at a very early stage; and the embryos, when first
hatched, have, from their oval form, been already, by many observers,
confounded with the true agamic eggs.

Prof. Leydig brings no farther evidence to bear on the curious fact,
confirmed by all my experience, that all the young of each brood are of
the same sex. On this point I have accumulated a good deal of infor-
mation. Not only did I carefully watch the origin and development of
many broods in the summer of 1856, but between the 1st June and the
11th December, 1858, T obtained nine generations of Daphnia, all of
which, except perhaps the first, were indubitably produced from agamic
eggs. • As this experiment is of much interest, I may perhaps be per-
mitted to give the details.

On the 22nd of June I took two young Daphnias, the mother of which
had been born by a specimen isolated in a tumbler. Neither these,
nor their mother, nor grandmother, had ever been in a glass with a male ;
but I have not kept the date of their birth,

On the 4th of July these had young ones, some of which I put in
another glass. These, therefore, formed the fourth generation without
impregnation.

On the 21st of July these again bore young ones ; and again on the
29th, some of which latter I isolated.

On the 19th of August these again produced young, which I iso-
lated.

On the 3rd of September, ditto,^ ditto.

On the 1st of October, ditto, ditto.

On the 1 st of December these again had young ones, which died
without breeding.

During this experiment I carefully examined all the young ones
produced ; and as the males are, even directly after birth, easily distin-
guishable from the females, I think I can undertake to say that not one
of the latter was produced during the whole time. This series of ob-

VOL. I N. H. E. E

26 REVIEWS.

servations, therefore, apart from the more obvious object which I had in
view, tends to confirm the opinion, that all the young of the same brood
are of one sex ; and this, again, if established, increases the evidence,
that, in the above experiment, no single male may, by chance, have
been present, and have escaped observation. This is, indeed, however,
scarcely possible, because I examined each brood when they were at most
a day or two old, and then isolated two or three specimens, all of which
were indubitably females ; and, indeed, except the last pair,, they all
proved fertile.

Considering, also, how much rarer the males are than the females,
it is a strong fact in the same direction, that the only time I satisfac-
torily proved the formation of a male from an agamic egg, the whole
brood, eighteen in number, were of that sex.

The fact is, therefore, to my mind, certainly established, that,
at least as far as nine generations, the females of Daphnia can continue
the species without the intervention of the male ; but I by no means
believe that the power is then exhausted. It must, indeed, be confessed
that the last two generations of my Daphnise were smaller and . weaker
than those that had gone before ; but I am inclined to attribute this partly
to the season (December), but principally to the fact, that certain small
algae, which had flourished all the summer in my tumblers, and had
furnished an abundant and suitable supply of food to the Daphni, had
died out, and thus left them without sufficient food.

As a general rule, I found that in the heat of summer young Daphniae
laid eggs for the first time (though, under the circumstances, " laying"
their eggs is scarcely a suitable expression), when they were about three
weeks old, and before they are full grown, or even sometimes a few
days earlier ; and after this they produced a fresh brood about every
seven or eight days.

Although, however, they breed with so much rapidity, they live in
confinement a considerable time ; I even kept one large specimen by
itself in a tumbler from the 21st of January to the 20th of May, when
it died ; and as it was full-grown at the earlier date, it must have lived
for at least five months, and even then it may have died from disease,
rather than from old age.

With reference to the homologies of the inner ephippial case, Prof.
Leydig expresses no opinion. The explanation of it given by me has,
however, lately been called in question by M. P. A. Smitt ;* he con-
firms, indeed, in all respects, the accuracy of my descriptions ; and, as
also does Prof. Leydig, agrees with me in admitting the correctness of
Straus' views as to the nature of the outer valve. I am happy to think
also that the apparent difference between us has arisen entirely from
his misunderstanding the perhaps too brief description of the structure
given by me.

The valve of a Daphnia, being a projection of the skin, consists, of

* Nova Acta Reg. Societ. Scient. Upsal., Ser. 3*., vol. iii.

LEYDIG ON DAPHNIID.F.. 27

course, of a central layer of corium, surrounded on all sides, except at
the line where it joins the body, by a chitinous envelope. When the
animal is about to shed its skin, the corium secretes around itself, and
between itself and the old chitinous layer, a new layer bf chitine; and if
an ephippium is being formed, the outer case is produced by the external
part of the old layer of chitine, while the chitine which clothed the
inner surface of the valve (inner, with reference to the receptacle,
though still, of course, in reality, an external skin), is modified into the
inner capsule of the ephippium, and the new layer of chitine takes, there-
fore, no share in this process.

As a proof that this view was correct, I cited the fact, that on re-
moving the outer valve of a Daphnia, which was about to change its
skin, the animal swam away, and the inner ephippial valve remained in
the receptacle. M. Smitt seems to doubt whether there is not some
mistake in this statement, since he says, " II doive deja etonner, que les
ceufs, la mere changeant de test, ne soient pas considerablement de-
ranges, et que la carapace nouvelle, qui les separe du test exterieur
de 1' ephippie, ne les emporte pas avec soi ;" but I never said that the
eggs were not disturbed ; it requires some practice and much steadiness
of hand to remove the old carapace, even from a large specimen, without
injuring the animal; but I never said that it could be done without de-
ranging the eggs.

I consider that the external and internal layers of the shell (both of
which are formed of epidermis, and are secreted by the corium or chiti-
nogenous layer which lies between them), constitute the outer and inner
valve of the ephippium, but M. Smitt understands me to suppose that
the inner layer of the ephippium is formed by the corium itself; and
he adds, that in this case it is impossible to understand in what man-
ner the new shell is produced. He suggests, indeed, that as the outer
valve of the ephippium is formed of the old shell, so the inner valve
may be formed by the new one ; but he admits that this explanation can-
not apply to those cases in which the Daphnia survives the removal of
the ephippium.

I must admit that M. Smitt has conclusively disproved the theory
which he supposes that I propounded; and I gladly take this opportunity
of thanking him for the courteous manner in which he has done so.
I trust, however, that, though the relation of the parts is somewhat
intricate, the present description is sufficiently precise ; and that, on a
second examination, M. Smitt will feel justified in adopting the expla-
nation which I have offered. M. Smitt has also made the curious obser-
vation, that in Daphnia sima the ephippium contains only one egg. This
fact, if it hold good generally, and was not merely the result of accidental
circumstances, is certainly very interesting. In D. Schcefferi, which alone
I examined with much care, two ephippial eggs were always produced
simultaneously, one in each ovary. Since reading IT. Smitt' s paper, I
have provided myself with some specimens of D. sima; but have not yet
succeeded in meeting with any ephippia.

Professor Ley dig has observed the male organs in several species.

28 REVIEWS.

In Daphnia (Moina) reetirostris he saw, not without astonishment, that
the spermatozoa resembled the star- formed seminal bodies of the higher
Crustacea. In other species of Daphnia — as, for instance, in D. magna,
D. sima, and D. longispina — they are small, rod-like, or conical bodies.
It must, however, be remarked, that Daphnia reetirostris is considered
by Dr. Baird as belonging to a different genus, and this great difference
in the spermatozoa is an additional argument in favour of the separa-
tion.

The testis is simple and tubular; it generally lies along the intestine,
in the same position as that occupied by the ovary, and opens, after
a short vas deferens, immediately on the upper side of the terminal
hooklets.

In D. reetirostris, indeed, it seemed to terminate in the rectum,
which, therefore, acts as a sort of cloaca ; but this is so unlike what
takes place in other species, that it requires confirmation before it can be
received as an undoubted fact.

Prof. Leydig considers that the recent investigations into the mor-
phology of the arthropods have shown that their body consists of four
parts — head, thorax, abdomen, and post-abdomen. This division, which
was proposed byErichson for the Crustacea, has not, however, been adopted
by our greatest authorities on the subject. Zaddach, in his admirable
monograph " Die Entwickelung des Phryganiden-Eies," divides the body
into five parts : " Vorderkopf, Kopf, Brust, Leib, und Hinterleib,"
though it seems unnecessary to divide the head into two parts. With
these exceptions, however, the opinion on this point is remarkably
unanimous. Siebold and Stannius, (Anat. Comp., 1850) ; Milne Ed-
wards, (Annales d. Sci. Nat., 1851, vol. xvi.) ; Dana, in his great
work on Crustacea, 1852; Owen, (Lectures on Comparative Anatomy,
1855); and Huxley, (Memoir on Aphis, Linnean Trans., vol. xxi, 1858),
all divide the body of the Crustacea into three parts — head, thorax, and
abdomen (the two former having more or less completely coalesced into
a cephalothorax). Most, however, if not all, of these eminent naturalists
admit that the five posterior thoracic segments of Crustacea are homo-
logous with certain segments which in Insects form part of the abdomen.
To apply the word " thorax," however, in two groups so nearly allied as
the Insects and the Crustacea, to two different parts of the body, is
manifestly very confusing, and contrary to the first principles of nomen-
clature. The three thoracic segments of insects correspond, according
to Erichson, whose views are generally adopted, to the three segments
which in Crustacea bear the three pairs of maxillipeds ; and the five
segments, which carry the legs in decapods, belong in consequence to the
abdomen. We ought, therefore, to alter our nomenclatures as regards
the Crustacea, however inconvenient such a change may be; and we must
for this group of arthropods, if at least we wish to keep the head and
thorax distinct, add a fourth division — the post-abdomen — to the three
generally admitted. It will no doubt be better, as a matter of conve-
nience, to divide the insect body also, theoretically, into four parts,
although practically there are but three, as in decapods.

LEYDIG ON DAPHNIID2B. 29

Although, therefore, the body of decapods and that of insects agree
in consisting, theoretically of four, and practically of three, segments,
there is this difference, that in the decapods the head and thorax have
coalesced, while in insects it is the abdomen and post-abdomen which
form a continuous series. It seems to me to be of great importance
that we should use the words " thorax" and " abdomen" in one sense
only; but when our nomenclature is thus corrected, it is a matter of little
importance whether, with most naturalists, we divide the body of Arti-
culata into three parts, with Leydig into four, with Zaddach into five,
or whether, with Erichson, we consider the body of the insect as falling
into three divisions, and that of the Crustacea, in which the abdomen is
not continuous, into four.

Indeed, these divisions, though convenient, are still artificial, since
the breaks which occur do not occupy the same place in all Articulata ;
and, even in the limits of one class, as for instance of the Crustacea or of
the Insects, we find segments which in some families lose their usual
attachments, and become more or less firmly united to one of the other
two divisions.

In order, therefore, to make our nomenclature self-consistent, I should
propose to confine the use of the word " thorax," in Crustacea, to the
three segments which bear the maxillipeds (and which are homologous
with the three thoracic segments of Insects); and to call the five leg-
bearing segments of the higher Crustacea the "abdomen," since they
correspond to the first five abdominal segments of Insects.

Prof. Leydig adopts the idea first suggested by Gruithuisen, and
confirmed by Zaddach, that the valves of Daphnia are homologous with
the anterior wings of insects; and as regards the mode of origin of the
" cuticle," or outer chitinous membrane, he adheres to the view expressed
by him in his article on Argulus (Zeitsch f. W. Zool, 1850, vol. ii.,
p. 325). According to this view, the outer chitinous investment is
a secretion from the subjacent cellular (?) layer ; and as most natu-
ralists are agreed on this point, we may regard it as being pretty
well established. M. Leydig, however, in 1855, expressed a decided
opinion, that the chitinous skin of Articulata was to be considered as
chitinised connective tissue. This is apparently a diametrically opposite
statement ; and we cannot wonder that most naturalists (see, for instance,
M. Baur's interesting paper in Miiller's Arch., 1860, pt. i.*~), should have
looked upon Leydig as having abandoned his previous idea. However
this may be, it is satisfactory to find that the best authorities are now
agreed in considering that the chitinous outer skin of Articulata is thrown
off from the underlying cellular layer, although Leydig refers this layer
to the class of tissues known as connective tissue, while Kolliker, Hackel,

* M. Baur, however, refers to MM. Kolliker and Hackel as being the first to regard
chitine as an excretion from the subjacent cellular layer, rather than a modification of
pre-existing tissue. M. Baur, like other continental naturalists, seems to have over-
looked Mr. Huxley's article (in Todd's " Cyclopaedia") on Tegumentary Organs, in which
this theory is propounded.

30 REVIEWS.

Baur, and others, look upon it as being a layer of epithelial cells. It is
admitted, says M. Baur, that the chitinous inner membrane of the in-
testine is secreted by the surrounding layer of epithelial cells, and passes
without any line of separation into the ordinary outer layer of chitine.
But, on the other hand, M. Leydig urges that the chitinous, spirally-
thickened lining of the tracheae, which also is continuous with the outer
skin, is clearly formed by the connective tissue.

Under these circumstances, we naturally ask for a definition of the
terms " epithelium" and "connective tissue." If with Baur we define
the former to be a layer of cells, or nuclei, clothing a free surface, it is
evident that the chitinogenous layer of the skin would be an epithelial
structure. But it may be asked, what is a free surface ? Before the
spiracles are formed, and the tracheae thus provided with an external
opening, the cells which secrete the chitinous inner membrane are cer-
tainly connective tissue ; when, however, the trachea is complete, they
clothe an outer surface just as much as the chitinogenous cells of tendons,
which may indeed be regarded as trachea), in which the chitine fills up
the cavity, instead of lining it. In this case, however, the cells them-
selves have undergone no change whatever, nor, even of position. It
seems to me, therefore, that we are not able to draw any satisfactory line
of separation between epithelium and connective tissue ; nor can we look
upon them as essentially distinct, although it may be convenient to re-
tain the names as expressing different forms of the same tissue.

The accessory eye-spot does not appear to be so rudimentary an organ
as has been generally supposed; and Prof. Leydig was able to detect
in it several distinct though small bodies, of high refractive power. He
thinks that it is a mistake to suppose that this spot belongs to the period
of embryonal life, since, in all species in which he found it present in the
embryo, it also occurred in mature specimens. The sense of hearing re-
sides, he believes, as in other Crustacea, in the anterior antennae ; these
organs are provided with a large nerve, which, in the middle of the an-
tennae, forms a small ganglion. From this ganglion, again, nerve-fila-
ments, more or less separate, pass to the group of auditory hairs, gene-
rally from five to ten in number, which form a tuft at the end of the an-
tenna.

No organ of smell has as yet been satisfactorily proved to exist in
Daphniidae. The so-called shell-canals of the Entomostraca are re-
garded by Prof. Leydig as homologous with the equally enigma-
tical " green glands" of the higher Crustacea, and these again with the
projecting green organ in the embryo of Asellus. This curious struc-
ture was first discovered by Rathke, who supposed it to act as an
embryonal gill. Prof. Leydig' s reasons for considering it as homo-
logous with the above-mentioned organs are, that he can suggest no
other homologue for it, and that it occupies a similar position; and
that, whereas the " green glands" are found in all other aquatic Crus-
tacea, no other homologue for them has been detected in Asellus. In
none of these cases has the organ any external orifice.

The blood in Daphnia consists of a fluid which is either colourless,

LETDIG OX DAPHNIID.B. 31

or slightly yellow ; in some few cases, even with a bluish or greenish tint.
The blood-cells are generally colourless, and their number varies accord-
ing to the richness or poverty of food. In some species, however, as, for
instance, in Polyphemus o cuius, the blood-cells appeared to be very few
in number, or even almost entirely absent.

I subjoin a list of the genera proposed by Prof. Ley dig, with their
principal characters : —

SIDA.

Six pairs of legs. The large antennae with two branches, one of
them two-jointed; the other three- jointed.

HOLOPEDITJM.

Characters of Sida. The large antennas not branched.

LATONA.

Characters of Sida. The large antennas with three branches.

DAP IOTA.

Five pairs of legs. The large antennas with two branches ; one
three-jointed, the other four-jointed.

MACROTHEIX.

Legs and general characters as in Daphnia. The plumose hair of
the first segment of the three-jointed branch of the large antennas is the
longest, and its second segment is toothed like a saw.

ACANTHOCEBCUS.

Characters generally as in Daphnia. The four-jointed branch of the
large antennas has only three plumose hairs ; the three-jointed branch
has five, the one belonging to the first segment being the longest.

PASITHEA.

Characters generally as in Daphnia. Both branches of the large an-
tennas have five setas. Post- abdomen peculiar; the part lying before the
anus small, the posterior portion elongated.

BOSMIXA.

Five pairs of legs. Large antennas two-branched ; the one branch
with four segments, and three bristles ; the other with three segments,
and five bristles. The head is produced in front into two long horns.

LYNCETTS.

Five pairs of legs. Stem of the large antennas short, with two
three-jointed branches. Accessory eye large.

32 REVIEWS.

POLYPHEMUS.

Pour pairs of legs, projecting beyond the carapace, which serves
only as a receptacle for the eggs. Head separated from the thorax.
The bristles on the large antennas plumose. Post-abdomen produced
behind as a long, cylindrical process, with two terminal set*.

BYTH.OTEEPHES.

General characters as in Polyphemus, but the anterior legs much
longer than the others. The post-abdomen terminating in a single, very
long spine.

PODOtf.

General characters as in Polyphemus, but the post- abdomen ending
in two long spines.

EVADNE.

General characters as in Polyphemus, but with the head and thorax
united. Post-abdomen very short ; the tail bristles quite small. The
receptacle of the eggs very large, and produced into a point.

Although this classification suppresses several of the unnecessary
genera which had been proposed by previous writers, it may be doubted
whether the list ought not to undergo a still farther diminution. The
number, arrangement, and size of the hairs on the antennas afford, in
Entomostraca, excellent specific differences ; but they are surely not of
sufficient importance to be used as generic characters. Although I
think few naturalists now regard genera as being more than a conve-
nient memoria technica, it is evidently desirable that the characters used
to separate genera should, throughout the animal kingdom, be as nearly
as possible of equal importance, and, to borrow a mathematical expres-
sion, of a higher " order" than those by which species are distinguished.
Of course this rule can only be applied in a very rough manner, since
it is almost impossible to estimate the relative value of different charac-
ters ; but it must, I think, be admitted that, if applied, for instance, to
the genus Acanthocercus, it would not justify the generic separation of
A. rigidus from the species of the preceding genus.

In the same manner, the groups Macrothrix and Pasithea, so far as
the characters given are concerned, are scarcely entitled to rank as sepa-
rate genera.

On the other hand, we must add to the list two genera proposed by
Prof. Dana, in his great work on Crustacea. A third, Ceriodaphnia, is
scarcely distinct enough from Daphnia. I subjoin the characters given
for all three, as many other naturalists may, like Prof. Leydig, have
been unable to obtain Prof. Dana's book.

PENILIA.

Pedes foliacei numero duodecim. Antennarum posticarum ram}

LEYDIG OX DAPHNIID2E.

ambo 2-articulati. Caput breve, infra elongato-productum, antennas
anticas obsolescentes versus apicem gerens.

CEKIODAPHXIA.

Pedes foliacei numero decem. Corpus fere globosum, capite brevi.
Antenna3 anticas niinutae (raro elongatce ?). Testa cellulis hexagonis et
pentagonis subtilissime areolata.

TLEOPIS.

Caput grande, oculis repletum. Pedes numero octo. Corpus postice,
non deflexum, fere rectum ; abdomen crassum extremitate furcatum,
setis nullis. Testa postice rotundata. Kami antennarum posticarum
3-articulati.

The whole family I should propose to divide into three sub-families,
according to the number of the legs, almost in the manner suggested by
Prof. Dana. Firstly, Sidinae, with six pair of foliaceous legs, and con-
taining the genera Sida, Holopedium, Latona, and Penilia. Secondl}T,
Daphnina), with five pairs of legs, and divided into the three genera,
Daphnia, Bosmina, andLynceus. And, thirdly, Polypheiniine, charac-
rized by four pairs of legs, and an immense eye. The latter sub-
family would comprise Polyphemus, Bythotrephes, Podon, Evadne, and
Pleopis.

Prof. Dana is, however, wrong in describing the head of Polyphe-
minae as " oculis repletum," the part thus occupied being, as Prof. Ley-
dig correctly points out, only the anterior part of the head.

On the whole, Prof. Ley(lig's "monograph is worthy of the reputation
of its author. The specific descriptions are drawn up with care, and in
much detail ; the drawings are clear and good : and though I have not
hesitated freely and frankly to indicate the points on which, in my opi-
nion, his views are incorrect, or his arguments inconclusive, I am glad
to take this opportunity of thanking him for what is undoubtedly a va-
luable work on a very interesting subject. There still remain, how-
ever, unsolved, many most important questions with reference to the
anatomy and development of Daphnia ; and especially an examination
into the embryology of the ephippial, as compared with that of the or-
dinary eggs, would, doubtless, well reward any one who would under-
take it. In a natural condition, indeed, the ephippial egg is so opaque,
that its internal condition cannot satisfactorily be ascertained ; but it is
probable that this difficulty might be overcome by the use of glycerine,
or some other chemical re-agents. The light which is in this manner
thrown upon tissues is most surprising; and it is probable that the future
progress of histology will depend, at least, as much on the judicious use
of chemical agents, as upon that of the microscope itself.

vol. i. — x. n. R.

34 KEVIEWS.

V. — On the Natural Position and Limits of the group Protozoa.

1. — Die Klassen und Ordnungen des Thier-richs, wissenschaftlich
dargestellt in wort und Bild. Yon Dr. H. G. Bronn, Professor an
der Universitat Heidelberg. Erster Band, Amorphozoen. Leipzig
und Heidelberg, 1859.

2. — Grundziige der Yergleichenden Anatomie. Yon Dr. Carl Gegenbaur,
Professor der Anatomie zu Jena. Leipzig, 1859. Erster Abschnitt,
Protozoa.

3. — A Manual of the Sub-Kingdom Protozoa, with a general Introduc-
tion on the Principles of Zoology. By Joseph Eeay Greene, B.A.,
Professor of Natural History in the Queen's College, Cork. Lon-
don, 1859.

4. — An Essay on Classification. By Louis Agassiz. London, 1859.

5. — Palaeontology ; or, a Systematic Summary of Extinct Animals, and
their Geological Eelations. By Richard Owen, E. E. S., &c, &c.
Edinburgh, 1860.

Two authors, of high reputation, having recently expressed themselves,
in a somewhat remarkable manner, on the nature of the Protozoa, we
have been induced to bring forward the following general comments on
the constitution of the group in question.

The Protozoa form one of the primary departments, or sub-kingdoms,
into which the animal world is divided ; that, in short, to which the
lowest forms of animal life belong.

At the time of Cuvier, our knowledge of the humbler animal organisms
was not sufficient to enable that naturalist fully to appreciate the
importance and extent of this division. The Infusoria, (exclusive of the
Eotifers,) and the Sponges, (then placed among the Polypes,) may be
said to have constituted, in the Cuvierian arrangement, the germ of the
sub-kingdom Protozoa, as it now stands. -kt

An early step towards the attainment of right views on the present
subject was made by Milne-Edwards, who, in his modification of the
system of Cuvier, sub-divided " Les Zoophytes" of that author into two
great sections: Eadiaires, and Sarcodaires. In the latter division he in-
cluded the two classes of Infusoria and Sponges.

The name Sarcodaires had obvious reference to the researches of
another French naturalist, Dujardin, who introduced the term " sarcode"f

* The term Infusoria is older than the time of Cuvier, and appears to have been first
made use of by Wrisberg, in his " Observationum de Animalculis Infusioriis Satura,"
1765, although the German equivalent of the same word had, two years before, been in-
troduced by Ledermiiller. The Sponges received their earliest scientific treatment in the
works of Aristotle. The words K GTroyyog" *' <r<p6yyoc" and " arroyyia" occur in se-
veral of the older Greek authors.

f See his " Histoire Naturelle des Infusoires," 1841, p. 35, et seq.

ON THE GROUP PEOTOZOA. • 35

to designate the peculiar semi-gelatinous substance composing the body
of these simple organisms. In the year 1835,* it was announced by this
observer, that the animal inhabitant of certain microscopic shells termed
Foraminifera by D'Orbigny,f though by hini placed among the Cephalo-
poda, agreed essentially in organization with the Amseba,' or Proteus ani-
malcule and other fresh- water forms allied thereto. It then became de-
sirable to separate these, as a group, from the true Infusoria; and accord-
ingly they were soon united into a class, under the name of Rhizopoda,
a term first introduced by M. Dujardin, but employed by him in not quite
so extended a signification.! ,

At length, in the year 1845, Von Siebold founded the modern sub-
kingdom, Protozoa, which he divided into two classes, Infusoria and
Rhizopoda§. JNo mention, however, is made by him of the Sponges.

' Previously, in the year 1838, the name of Polycystina|| had been
given by Ehrenberg to a group of microscopic siliceous- shelled creatures,
evidently allied to the Foraminifera. Ehrenberg, it is true, entertained
very peculiar views of their affinities, and even sought to place them in
the neighbourhood of his Bryozoa.

So early as 1828, Dufour had established the genus Gregarina^J for
the reception of certain minute parasitic organisms found by him in the
bodies of insects. In the year 1841, J. Midler described, under the
title of Psorospermias**, the contents of small rounded cysts occurring in
the cellular tissue of the muscles of a young pike's eye. Ten years af-
terwards, the existence of a curious relationship between these Psoro -
spermige and the Gregarinse of Dufour was ingeniously demonstrated by
Leydig.f f Doubts soon arose as to the position of these parasitic forms.
Creplin^ had suspicions of their vegetable nature ; the hasty observa-
tion of some phenomena in their development, which simulated the con-
jugation of the lower Algge, appeared, at first, to countenance this con-
jecture. Bruch§§, Leydig, and a number of other observers, regarded
them as Helminthes, or, at least, as transitory stages in the life-history
of these animals. But Kolliker, in a paper of great value, |||| brought
forward arguments which went far to prove, (1), that the GregarinaB
were true animals ; (2), that no good evidence had been produced to

* " Observations nouvelles sur les pretendus Cephalopodes microscopiques," par M.
Dujardin, Ann. d. Sci. Nat., Ser. 2, torn. 3.— Zool., pp. 108 et 312.

f In his " Tableau Methodique de la Classe des Cephalopodes," Ann. d. Sci. Nat.,
torn. 7. 1826. The much older terra, Polythalamia, dates at least as far back as 1732.
See Breyn, " Dissertatio Physica de Polythalamis, nova Testaceorum Classe," 1732.

X " Infusoires," p. 240. Also, " Recherches sur les Organismes inferieurs," Ann.
d. Sci. Nat., torn. 4, 1835; and "Observations sur les Rhizopodes et les Infusoires,"
Compt. Rend., 1835.

§ Lehrbuch der vergleichenden Anatomie, Wirbellose Thiere, 1845.

|| See Abhand. d. Berlin Acad., 1839.

U Ann. d. Sci. Nat., torn. 13, 1828, p. 366, et Ser. 2, torn. 7, 1837, p. 10.

** Muller's Archiv., 1841, p. 477.

ft Muller's Archiv., 1851, p. 221.

jj Wiegmann's Archiv., 1842, p. 61.

§§ Siebold und Kblliker's " Zeitschrift," 1850, p. 110.

Illl Siebold und Kolliker's " Zeitschrift," 1848, p. 1.

36 REVIEWS.

show that they were not perfect animals ; and (3), that their exceedingly
simple structure differed much from that of the Helminthes. Kolli-
ker, indeed, considered the simple Gregarinse as unicellular animals.
"Without assenting to the theory which this expression involves, we may,
in the absence of more valid testimony, agree with the general tenor of
his observations, and view the Gregarinse as indubitable members of the
group Protozoa. The recent careful investigations of Lieberkiihn^ ap-
pear to strengthen this position.

In the same year wherein Leydig published his researches on the
GregarinaB, Professor Huxley described, under the name of Thalassicolla,f
a singular genus of marine animals, manifesting affinities both with the
Sponges and Foraminifera. It would appear, however, that Meyen,
seventeen years before, had noted the existence of some of these forms. J

The nature of the Thalassicollse was, subsequently, further eluci-
dated by the late J, Miiller, who arranged these organisms under four
genera : Thalassicolla proper, Physematium, Sphserozoon, and Collo-
sphsera.§ He, at the same time, called attention to an allied group of
Protozoa, previously unnoticed, which he proposed to term Acantho-
metra. These observations are, perhaps, the more interesting, since
they form the subject of the last communication made to science by this
great anatomist. ||

One other addition to the Protozoa yet remains to be noticed. There
can be now little doubt that the ]Noctiluca^[ of Surriry, well known
for its power of imparting a phosphorescent appearance to the sea, and
erroneously referred by De Blainville to the Diphydae, rightly belongs
to this sub-kingdom. From the observations of Professor Huxley, ** its
affinities would seem to be nearest the Infusoria, though, by Doyere,
Yan Beneden, and others, it has been placed with the Ehizopodous
members of the group.

Thus, then, there exists an extensive group of organisms of very
humble structure, but equivalent in Zoological importance to the Yer-
tebrata, Mollusca, and other primary divisions of the animal kingdom.
This department, or sub-kingdom, of Protozoa contains : —

1. Reizopoda, including Foraminifera.

2. polyctstina.

3. Thalassicollida.

4. AcANTHOMETRA.

5. Spongidje, or Porifera.

6. Gregarinida, including Psorospermice.

7. Infusoria.

8. Noctiltjcida.

* Evolution des Gregarines, Mem. del'Acad. de Belg., torn. 26, 1855.

f Ann. Nat. Hist., 1851, p. 433.

J Nov. Act. Acad. Car. Leop., 1834, xvi., Supp. I., p. 159.

§ Monats-Ber. der Acad, zu Berlin, 1855, pp. 229 and 671 : ibid., 1856, p. 474.

|| Abhand. d. Berlin Acad., 1858.

IT Guerin. Mag. d. Zool., 1836, p. 1.

" "Quart. Jour. Micr. Sci.," 1855, p. 49.

ON TILE GROUP PROTOZOA. 37

These organisms are true animals. Eecent observations,* it may be
said, throw some doubt over the nature of a few of the simple Rhizopods,
but they are far from proving their supposed affinities with plants.
And, until further researches compel us to alter our belief, we see no
sufficient reason for dissenting from the generally-received opinion, that
Ama3ba and Actinophrys perform all the necessary functions of un-
doubted animals. With regard to Infusoria, if the possession of a
mouth be demanded as an essential condition in all future definitions of
this group, we at once get rid of the hosts of Rhizopods and vegetable
forms, which some, following Ehrenberg, still associate with the Infu-
soria properly so called. It yet remains to distinguish these latter from
the numerous embryonic forms of higher animals, more particularly
of Annulloida, with which, in all probability, they are in many cases
confounded.

A good classification of the Protozoa is still a desideratum. Much
has yet to be done towards the attainment of a more perfect knowledge
both of their structure and development, before even the data necessary
for such an object can rightly be perceived. How far, in the present
state of inquiry, we seem justified in indicating the outlines of a natural
arrangement, may be inferred from the following considerations.

Some of the Protozoa possess, others are destitute of, a mouth. The
former are termed Stomatoda, the latter, Astomata.f The Stomatoda
include all the Infusoria proper, and the solitary genus Noctiluca. Under
Astomata are placed all remaining Protozoa. Whether the six groups
of Protozoa Astomata, recognized in the above list, be precisely equiva-
lent to one another, must remain an open question. By J\ Miiller J the
term Rhizopoda has been extended, so as to include the Polycystina,
Thallassicollidge and Acanthometra. To these three groups he applies
the collective designation of Rhizopoda radiolaria. Lachmann, and
Claparede,§ the latest systematic writers on this subject, have, with some
few restrictions, adopted the views of Miiller, and arranged the Rhizo-
poda as follows : —

RHIZOPODA.

No calcareous
shell, with
numerous,
porous,
chambers.

f Xo siliceous spi-"|
cules, or yel- <• PR(
low cells. J

Orders. Families.

Pseudopodia g-VJf *~ f PHOTEIXA. \ ^^RTBi..

rarely becom- ! 10w ceus- ■> L

one ShSth I Siliceous spicules! (1. Acanthometrina.

oneanotner. and yellow J-ECHINOCYSTIDA. 1 2. Thalassicollina.

L Cells. j (,3. POLTCISTINA.

, Pseudopodia forming very nume-)rpoviD, . r„0,frTl,

I rous, confused, agglutinations. JWKMUUA- 1. (*romida.

A shell, usually calcareous, most frequently divided! " f, ».„,„„„,„„

into several chambers, each of which, though entire, \ FORAMINIFERA. { , pr?r v' "fr f" AA>
has its walls pierced with very many pores. I rlouI hal amia.

* Hartig, in "Quart. Jour. Micr. Sci.," 1855, p. 51; Carter, in "Ann. Nat. Hist.,"
1857, p. 259 ; A. de Bary, in Siebold und Kolliker's "Zeitschrift," 1859, p. 88; Dick-
son, in "Quart. Jour Micr. Sci.," 1860, p. 7.

f Huxley, " Lectures on Gen. Nat. Hist.," in " Med. Times and Gaz.," May 24, 1856,
p 507. % Miiller's Archiv., 1858, p. 104.

§ Etudes sur les Infusoires et Ithizopode.s, 2me livraison, p. 434.

38 REVIEWS.

Other writers go farther, and propose to unite the Sponges with the
Bhizopoda; nor can we hesitate to admit that many facts are in favour of
snch a conclusion. But, on the other hand, the possession of so remark-
able a morphological element as their fibre, which, even when siliceous,
as in Dictyochalis, still exhibits its characteristic reticulated arrang-
ment, must, apart from their aquiferous system, and the comparatively
large size which many of them attain, be duly estimated in all attempts
to lower the independent value of this group.

The Gregarinida, at first sight, appear to depart most in structure
from the ordinary type of an Astomatous Protozoon. Yet even these, as
Lieberkiihn has shown, give rise, in the course of their development, to
bodies which very closely resemble Amaebae. Thus intimately are
these humbler organisms allied to one another.

We are, therefore, disposed to conclude that the time has not yet
come for adopting any very definite sub-division of the Protozoa. Those,
however, who are not content with the simple enumeration of groups
given above, may adopt such a provisional arrangement as the follow-
ing :—

PEOTOZOA.

-A- >

ASTOMATA. STOMATODA.

>V. -A

1. Bhizopoda. 1. Infusoria.

2. Sponged a. 2. Noctiettcida.

3. Gregarinida.

Such characters as appear to be common to all the Protozoa are, for
the most part, purely negative. They do not present that differentia-
tion into distinct layers, which, at so early a stage of development, is
manifested by the members of the remaining sub-kingdoms. Those who
prematurely seek for a definition of the Protozoa must remember that,
in beings of the simplest plan of animal structure, the presence of j3osi-
tive anatomical features, similar to those which distinguish groups of a
higher grade of organization, is not to be expected.

We look forward, then, with hope to the result of further investiga-
tions, for a solution of those difficulties which yet stand in the way of a
right knowledge of the Protozoa. Nevertheless, a writer so eminent as
Professor Agassiz has, in a recent work, declared that the very existence
of this division, as a distinct animal sub-kingdom, must henceforth be
ignored. We quote, verbatim, the passages in which he professes to
have arrived at so iconoclastic a conclusion: —

" As to the Protozoa, I have little confidence in the views generally entertained re-
specting; their nature. Having satisfied myself that Colpoda and Paramecium are the
brood of Planarife, and Opalina that of Distoma, I see no reason why the other Infu-
soria, including in Ehrenberg's division Enterodela, should not also be the brood of the
manv lower worms, the development of which has hitherto escaped our attention. Again,
a comparison of the early stages of development of the Entomostraca with Rotifera might

ON THE GROUP PROTOZOA. 39

be sufficient to show, what Burmeister, Dana, and Leydig, have proved in another way,
that Rotifera are genuine Crustacea, and not worms. The vegetable character of most
of the Anentera has been satisfactorily illustrated. I have not yet been able to arrive
at a definite result respecting the Rhizopods, though they may represent, in the type of
Mollusks, the stage of yoke-segmentation of Gasteropoda. From these remarks it should
be inferred that I do not consider the Protozoa as a distinct branch of the animal king-
dom, nor the Infusoria as a natural class."

" With reference to the Protozoa, first, it must be acknowledged that, notwithstand-
ing the extensive investigation of modern writers upon Infusoria and Rhizopoda, the
true nature of these beings is still very little known. The Rhizopoda have been wander-
ing from one end of the series of Invertebrata to the other, without finding a place gene-
rally acknowledged as expressing their true affinities. The attempt to separate them
from all the classes with Avhich they have been so long associated, and to place them
with the Infusoria in one distinct branch, appears to me as mistaken as any of the
former arrangements; for I do not consider that their animal nature is yet proved
beyond a doubt, though I have myself once suggested the possibility of a definite rela-
tion between them and the lowest Gasteropods.* Since it has been satisfactorily ascer-
tained that the Corallines and Nullipores are genuine Algre, which contain more or less
lime in their structure, and since there is hardly any group among the lower animals and
lower plants which does not contain simple locomotive individuals, as well as compound
communities, either free or adhering to the soil, I do not see that the facts known at
present preclude the possibility of an association of the Rhizopods with the Algre. This
would almost seem natural, when we consider that the vesicles of many Fuci contain a
viscid, filamentous substance, so similar to that produced from the body of the Rhizo-
pods, that the most careful microscopic examination does not disclose the slightest diffe-
rence in its structure from that which mainly forms the body of-Rhizopods. The discovery
by Schultze of what he considers as the germinal granules of these beings by no means
settles this question, since we have similar ovoid masses in Algae, and since among the
latter locomotive forms are also very numerous." In a note it is added, that " the recent
investigations of Ehrenberg and J. Miiller indicate a very close affinity between the
Thalassicolae, the Polycystinre, and the Rhizopods ; and the more I examine these
enigmatical bodies, the more do they impress me as being allied to the lower Algae and
to the Sponges, rather than to any type of the animal kingdom."

" With reference to the Infusoria, I have long since expressed my conviction, that
they are an unnatural combination of the most heterogeneous beings. A large number
of them — the Desmidiacaa and Volvocinas — are locomotive Algae. Indeed, recent investi-
gations seem to have established beyond all question the fact, that all the Infusoria
Anenterata of Ehrenberg are Algae. The Enterodela, however, are true animals, but
belong to two very distinct types ; for the Vortieellidae differ entirely from all others.
Indeed, they are. in my opinion, the only independent animals of that group ; and, so
far from having any natural affinity with the other Enterodela, I do not doubt that
their true place is by the side of the Bryozoa, among the Mollusks, as I shall attempt
to show presently. Isolated observations, which I have been able to make upon Para-
mecium, Opalina, and the like, seem to me sufficient to justify the assumption that they
disclose the true nature of the bulk of this group. I have seen, for instance, a Planaria

* Allusion is here made by Prof. Agassiz to the following passage, which occurs in a
Paper on the Principles and Classification of the Animal Kingdom, published in the
" Proceedings of the American Association for the Advancement of Science," Charleston,
March, 1850 : —

"Again, the position of the Foraminifera seems to me no longer doubtful. They are
neither microscopic Cephalopoda nor Polype, as of late it has been generally thought best
to consider them, but constitute a truly embryonic type in the great division of Gastero-
poda, exemplifying, in the natural division, in a permanent condition, the embryonic
state of development of common Gasteropoda, during which the bulk of the yolk passes
through the process of repeated divisions."

40 REVIEWS.

lay eggs, out of which Paramecia were born, which underwent all the changes these
animals are known to undergo up to the time of their contraction into a chrysalis state;
while the Opalina is hatched from Distoma's eggs. I shall publish the details of these
observations on another occasion. But if it can be shown that two such types as Para-
mecium and Opalina are the progeny of worms, it seems to me to follow that all the
Enterodela, with the exception of the Vorticellidse, must be considered as the embryonic
condition of that host of worms, both parasitic and free, the metamorphosis of which is
still unstudied. In this connexion I might further remark, that the time is not long
past when Cercaria was also considered as belonging to the class of Infusoria, though at
present no one doubts that it belongs to the cycle of Distoma; and the only link in the
metamorphosis of that genus which was not known is now supplied, since, as I have
stated above, the embryo which is hatched from the egg laid by the perfect Distoma is
found to be an Opalina."

" All this leads to the conclusion that a division of the animal kingdom to be called
Protozoa, differing from all other animals in producing no eggs, does not exist in nature ;
and that the beings which have been referred to it have now to be divided, and scat-
tered, partly among plants, in the class of Algae, and partly among animals, in the classes
of Acephala, (Vorticelhe,) of Worms, (Paramecium and Opalina,) and of Crustacea, (Roti-
fera) ; the Vorticellas being genuine Bryozoa, and therefore Acephalous Mollusks ; while
the beautiful investigations of Dana and Leydig have proved the Rolifera to be genuine
Crustacea, and not worms."

In these passages it will be observed that much which cannot be
accepted is blended with statements of facts long since admitted to be
true, and thus a certain degree of plausibility conferred upon the whole.

Few, indeed, will deny that the Desmidia, Volvocinse, and several
other organisms referred by Ehrenberg to his Polygastrica, are true Algce.
That many of the Enterodela may yet prove to be embryonic forms
seems also highly probable. To conclude, however, that all the Infu-
soria, with the exception of the Yorticeliidse, may thus readily be dis-
posed of, appears at best a somewhat hasty mode of removing difficulties,
the solution of which must depend on a long series of patiently con-
ducted embryological inquiries. Because two or three forms of supposed
Infusoria are shown to be stages of development in the life-history of
certain worms, it by no means follows that all remaining Infusoria are
to be likewise so regarded. Nor does the careful examination of such a
genus as Pedicellina, which of all the Bryozoa most closely approaches
Vorticella in form, strengthen the opinion entertained by Prof. Agassiz
of their mutual relationship, but is rather decidedly opposed to it.

The assertion that Rhizopoda have not yet found " a place generally
acknowledged as expressing their true affinities," would scarcely lead
the reader to suppose that Brown, Cams, Gegenbaur, Siebold, Yogt, Yan
Beneclen, Gervais, and many other zoologists, agree in referring them
to the type of Protozoa. And he who reads with care the memoirs of
Carpenter and Williamson on the shelly structure of the Foraminifera,
will scarcely be disposed to call in question their animal nature, or
liken the highly complex frame- work of Peneroplis or Polystomella to
the stony frond of a Melobesia, in every essential respect so different.
Still less does the sarcode substance of the Rhizopods and Sponges
resemble, in its vital endowments, the viscid contents of the vesicles
of Fuci. Lastly, it is incorrect to state that the Protozoa, as a group,
are distinguished from other animals in producing no eggs, since, even

OX THE GROUP PROTOZOA. 41

so far back as 1851, the existence of true ova was conclusively demon-
strated in the genus Tethya.

Those who refuse to admit the Protozoa within the animal kingdom
are bound legitimately to solve the question which they have raised as
to their true systematic position. Professor Agassiz, as we have seen,
adopts the ready expedient of banishing the majority of the group to
the vegetable kingdom. Botanists, however, refuse to acknowledge the
outcasts thus summarily thrust upon them for protection. Our great
anatomist, Professor Owen, has proposed to cut short the difficulty, by
establishing for their reception a third primary division of the organic
world. By him we are informed that —

" The two divisions of organisms called ' plants' and ' animals' are specialized mem-
bers of the great natural group of living things; and there are numerous beings, mostly
of minute size, and retaining the form of nucleated cells, which manifest the common
organic characters, but without the distinctive super-additions of plants and animals.
Such organisms are called ' Protozoa,' and include the Sponges or Amorphozoa, the Fo-
raminifera or Rhizopods, the Polycystinese, the Diatomaceae, Desmidias, Gregarina, and
most of the so-called Polygastria of Ehrenberg, or infusorial animalcules of older
authors."

The " common organic characters" here alluded to have, in a pre-
ceding paragraph been denned as follows : —

"Organisms, or living things, are those which possess such an internal cellular or
cellulo- vascular structure as can receive fluid matter from without, alter its nature, and
add it to the alterative structure. Such fluid matter is called ' nutritive,' and the actions
which make it so are called 'assimilation' and 'intra-susception.' These actions are
classed as 4 vital,' because, as long as they are continued, tbe ' organism' is said ' to
live.'"

Professor Owen then goes on to distinguish between plants and ani-
mals thus . —

" When the organism can also move, when it receives the nutritive matter by a
mouth, inhales oxygen, and exhales carbonic acid, and developes tissues, the proximate
principles of which are quaternary compounds of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitro-
gen, it is called an 'animal.' When the organism is rooted, has neither mouth nor sto-
mach, exhales oxygen, and has tissues composed of ' cellulose' or of binary or ternary
compounds, it is called a ' plant.' "

To do justice to these definitions, we shall, without alteration of the
author's language, present them in the form of the four following pro-
positions:—

1 . The animal can move ; the plant is rooted.

2. The animal receives nutritive matter by a mouth ; the plant has
neither mouth nor stomach.

3. The animal inhales oxygen, and exhales carbonic acid ; the plant
exhales oxygen.

4. The animal developes tissues, the proximate principles of which
are quaternary compounds of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen ;

vol. i. — x. H. E. G

42 REVIEWS.

the plant has tissues composed of cellulose, or of binary and ternary com-
pounds.

With these may be compared the subjoined parallel considerations : —
1 . The Corynidae, Sertularidae, and many other undoubted animals,
are fixed to foreign supports, that is, rooted, just as Laminaria and most
sea- weeds are rooted. The common Duckweed is not rooted : is it, there-
fore, not a plant (?)

The Tceniadae and Acanthocephala have neither mouth nor stomach.
The males of Rotifers are in a similar predicament. Are such organisms
plants ?

3. Plants exhale oxygen, it is true; but they also, like animals, ex-
hale carbonic acid. The experiments of Saussure are conclusive upon
this point.

4. Every plant contains nitrogen in its tissues. According to the
analysis of Chevandier, wood yields from 0*67 to 1*52 of nitrogen. And
in an approved Manual of Chemistry we read,

" That certain of the azotised principles of plants, which often abound, and are never
altogether absent, have a chemical composition and assemblage of properties which as-
similate them in the closest manner, and, it is believed, even identify them, with the
azotised principles of the animal body : vegetable albumen, fibrin, and casein, are scarcely
to be distinguished from the bodies of the same name extracted from blood and milk."

And in the tests of Ascidians, a deposit of cellulose takes place, pre-
cisely after the manner of its formation in the tissues of plants.

So much, then, for Professor Owen's distinctions between the animal
and vegetable kingdoms. They prepare us to understand his implied
definition of the organisms included in his new kingdom of Protozoa.
These " manifest the common organic characters," or, in other words,
perform the vital act of nutrition, " but without the distinct super-addi-
tions of plants and animals." It follows, therefore, as a necessary infer-
ence from the quotations above made, that the anomalous beings in ques-
tion neither move nor are rooted, but remain in some peculiar physical
condition yet to be explained; that they do not receive nutritive matter
by a mouth, and, at the same time, differ from organisms which have
neither mouth nor stomach ; that they neither inhale nor exhale oxygen;
and that neither binary, ternary, nor quaternary compounds enter into
the composition of their tissues. Such, according to Professor Owen,
are the distinctive characteristics of the organic kingdom, Protozoa.

We conclude, however, that a line of demarcation exists between
the animal and vegetable kingdoms, and that the Protozoa, rightly .so
called, have their place on the animal side of the line. The unpre-
judiced reader of Lieberkiihn's careful memoirs can no longer remain
in doubt as to the animal nature of the Sponges. And it is for him who
disputes the vegetability of the Diatoms and Desmids to set aside the
long series of observations inaugurated by the positive discoveries of
Thwaites and Ralfs. The difficulty of expressing, by definition, the
distinctions between plants and animals rests, be it remembered, more

ON THE GROUP PROTOZOA. 43

on our ignorance than our knowledge. Those who ignore the anima-
lity of the true Protozoa may choose between the rival systems of Pro-
fessors Agassiz and Owen.

[To the courtesy of the author we are indebted for a copy of his
paper " On the Distinctions of a Plant and an Animal, and on a Fourth
Kingdom of Nature. By John Hogg, M. A., F. P. S., F. L. S., etc.
(From the 'Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal,' I860.)" In this
communication, Mr. Hogg gives a general support to the proposition of
Professor Owen, to establish a fourth kingdom of nature for those " pri-
mary organic beings" whose systematic position is doubtful, qualifying,
however, his assent by the statement, that he is not yet " quite con-
vinced of the immediate necessity of doing so, or that it will ever remain
— notwithstanding the progress which we hope will continue to be made
in physical science — impossible for man to determine whether a certain
minute organism be an animal or a plant ;" while, at the same time, he
ventures to dispute the propriety of the term Protozoa as a designation
for a group of beings whose animality is obviously inadmissible. He,
therefore, in its stead suggests "the title of the Primigenal Kingdom,

REGNTJM

PRIMIGENUM,

(continens)
PROTOCTISTA,

i. e.,

PROTOPHYTA et PROTOZOA. '

Mr. Hogg endeavours still further to illustrate his meaning by the
addition of a diagrammatic figure, brilliantly coloured. In this graphic
representation, the animal and vegetable kingdoms .are respectively de-
noted by " two lofty pyramids," one line, the other yellow, arising from
a common base of a subdued green tint, his allegorical chromatic embodi-
ment of the " Regnum Primigenum;" the whole reposing on a more or
less undulating substratum of pale broivn, which places before the eye, in
one bold panoramic projection, the widely extended domain of our great
inorganic parent, Earth, the mother of us all.]

( 44 )

©riginal %,xtuh&-

VI. — On Sph^etjlaeia Bombi .By John Lubbock, E. R. S., F. L. S.,

E.G. S. (With Plate I.)

This very curious creature was first discovered by Leon Dufour, and
described by him in the " Annales des Sciences Katurelles" for 1836.
He at first supposed that it was a dipterous larva, but soon saw that it
belonged to the Entozoa; and as it certainly could not be referred to any
other genus, he gave it the appropriate name of Sphserularia.

Yon Siebold is, I believe, the only other naturalist who has re-
corded any personal observations on the subject ; and as the remarks of
both these excellent observers are very much to the purpose, and at the
same time very short, I may, perhaps, be permitted to quote them in
full.

M. Leon Dufour' s description is as follows: —

" SPHJERULARIA BOMBI. *

" Teres, albido-pellucida, mollis, filiformis, haud annulata, undique spbserulis vesicula?
formibus grarmlata, antero postieeque obtusa subrotundata.

" Hab. in abdomine Bombi terrestris et B. hortorum. Long., 6-8 lin. J'ai vaine-
ment cherche a rapporter ce singulier Entozoaire a quelqu'un des genres consignes dans
l'ouvrage de Rudolphi ; j'ai cru pouvoir en const ituer un nouveau sous le nom de Sphae-
rulaire qui exprime sa structure exterieure. Je Tavais d'abord pris pour une larve de
Diptere, mais l'absence de toute segmentation et sa forme cylindrique, me ramenerent a un
Entozoaire. II n'est pas ties greles, puisque sur six a huit lignes de longueur il en a pres
d'une de largeur. 11 n'offore aucune distinction ni de tete ni de queue, et il est obtus
ou merae arrondi par un bout ou par l'autre. Toute la surface de son corps estcouverte,
soit au dessus, soit au dessons, de granulations spheroidales semblables a des vesicules
subdiaphanes.

" Je l'ai rencontre plusieurs fois dans la cavite abdominale des especes precitees de
Bombus, en dehors du tube digestif et toujours libre. En Juiu, 183B, j'en trouvai deux
ensemble dans le meme individu du B, hortorum, et cette circonstance me fortifie encore
dans l'idee que c'est un Entozoaire."

Y. Siebold says ("Miiller's Archiv.," 1838) :—

"Who would not be surprised at the appearance of the Sp. bombi, figured by Leon
Dufour, and ask himself in which of the five orders of Helminths this bee-worm should
be placed. I have been fortunate enough to find this worm in the cavity of the body of
B. terrestris, muscorum, and sylvarum, together with completely formed young ones,
and have made out from the form and manner of development of the latter that this
parasite can be nowhere better placed than among the Nematoids. Besides which, the
formation of the female generative organs corresponds exactly with those ofEilaria; but,
on the other hand, the rest of the worm presents some peculiarities : its digestive appa-

* Leon Dufour, Ann. Sc. Nat. 1836, 2nd Ser., vol. vii.

LUBBOCK OX SPH^RULABTA BOMBI. 45

ratus differs remarkably from that of the Nematoids, and I could remark no trace of
movement in any individual, — all of which were females, — however fresh I examined
them : the young ones, on the contrary, moved about in a lively manner. In this ani-
mal the interesting occurrence takes place, that the young are entirely unlike the full-
grown animal, their skin being quite smooth, while that of the mother animal is studded
with vesicular projections, giving to it a very pretty appearance."

The only other original notice of this extraordinary creature which
I have met with is a note to Siebold and Stannius' ' ' Anatomie com-
paree." They say: —

" On ne trouve ni bouche ni anus chez la Sphcerularia Bombi, et le canal intestinal
est remplace par une serie d'utricules allongees, adhereutes ensemble, et autour desquelles
s'enroulent les organes genitaux."

Except that the series of large cells is double, instead of single, and
that one end of the worm is easily distinguishable by the presence of the
vulva, these statements are all, I believe, perfectly correct ; they still,
however, leave a great many points to be ascertained, and it was with a
hope of supplying the deficiency that I undertook the subject. My good
fortune has been smaller than my hopes ; but, though the present me-
moir is lamentably incomplete, it may not, I hope, be found entirely
without interest.

M. Leon Dufour and Yon Siebold met with Sphaerularia in the
four species of humble bees — namely, Bomlus terrestris, hortorum,
sylvarum, and muscorum. I have found it in the females of B. terres-
tris, lueorum, pratorum, lapidarius, subterr emeus, hortorum, and mus-
corum, which increases to eight the number of species in which Sphae-
rularia is known more or less frequently to reside. The proportion of
specimens attacked is, however, very different in the different species, and
the parasite appears to be most common in B. terrestris, lapidarius, and
lueorum. Out of thirty-three specimens of B. terrestris examined by me
in the months of May and June, no less than nineteen — that is to say,
more than one-half — contained these parasites. The -following table
shows the number of bees examined, and the proportion which were
affected : —

No. of large Females No. which contained

examined in May and June. Sphterulari.

Bombus terrestris .... 83 19

,, lueorum ....21 7

„ muscorum .... 16 1

,, hortorum .... 13 1

„ lapidarius .... 12 6

,, pratorum .... 6-* 2

,, subterraneus ... 4 2

Apathus vestalis 7 0

I have not had any opportunity of examining B. sylvarum ; and it
will be observed that B. muscorum and hortorum, in which the parasite
was found by Y. Siebold, have only supplied me with a single infected
specimen each, out of twenty-nine which I examined.

Xeither Leon Dnfour nor Siebold say anything about the sex of

46 ORIGINAL ARTICLES.

the infected specimens. All, however, that have come under my notice
were large females, and I have never seen a single Sphaerularia in a
worker or a male.

The worms lie free in the cavity of the body, and are somewhat
curled up. The largest number of full-grown females which I ever
found in a single bee was eleven, but the usual numbers were from five
to eight. The two infected specimens of B.pratorum, however, contained
only one specimen of the parasite apiece.

Anatomy of Sph. bombi.

FEMALE.

Von Siebold was quite correct in asserting that all the specimens ob-
served by him were females; the males being, as mentioned below, very
much smaller in size, and quite different inform and appearance. The full-
grown females, as they are met with in May, June, and July, are nearly
an inch long, more or less curled up, white in colour, sometimes opaque,
sometimes more or less transparent, and of equal thickness from one end
to the other, being everywhere about J^th of an inch in diameter. The
whole surface is covered with button- like projections, PI. 1, Fig. 1, from
which the very appropriate generic name is derived. These buttons are
situated at equal distances from one another, and are of more or less
equal size ; each one is from T^^ths to y^y ^ ths of an inch in diameter,
and the intermediate spaces are a little smaller. There are, therefore,
10 longitudinal, and about 80 transverse rows, making, in all, about 800
of these projections ; and each of them projects from y^o^ns ^° T(J6oo^ns
of an inch above the general surface of the body.

Generally these spherules are nearly as transparent as the rest of
the skin ; here and there, however, some of them are rendered quite
opaque by the presence of innumerable, minute, greenish, elliptic bodies,
each about ^oo^1 °f an ^h *n length, by Too"oo^n °f an mcn ^n
breadth. These darkened spherules are comparatively few in number,
only one here and there being affected in this manner, except round the
vulva, where from eleven to fourteen were generally in this condition.
No other Nematoid worms have wart-like projections so much developed ;
many species, however, have, on particular parts, and especially in the
male sex, buttons, much less than, but doubtless homologous with,
those which are so much developed in Sphgerularia, and have suggested
for it a name so characteristic. Leon Dufour and Siebold considered the
Sphserulari from the different sorts of humble bees, as belonging to
one species; and all the specimens which have come under my notice
have been very similar to one another, and have presented no differences
of specific value. One specimen, however, was a little narrower than
the rest, and more transparent; the buttons, also, were smaller than
usual, and the body tapered a little towards the end which contains the
vulva.

In turning to the internal anatomy, one can, with reference to some
highly important organs, and systems of organs, only parody Van Troil's

LrBBOCK OX SPH^EULAEIA BOMBI. 47

celebrated chapter on the snakes in Iceland, and say simply that there
are in Sphaerularia, no muscles, no nervous or circulatory systems, and
no intestinal canal.

A priori it would seem almost impossible that an animal could
exist without these organs. Muscles, however, would be useless, or
even destructive. So long as the Sphaerularia remains quiet, the Bee
does not seem incommoded by its presence, which perhaps produces
scarcely any abnormal sensations ; but if the parasite, being so large in
proportion to its victim, were to move about, it would probably so affect
and disarrange the viscera of the Bee, that the poor insect would be
quite unable to pursue its usual avocations, and would quickly perish.
The female Sphaerularia being thus, when full-grown, reduced to a
merely vegetative existence, the nerves of motion and of sensation must,
of course, be useless, and would soon become atrophied. Under these
circumstances, however, it might have been expected that the digestive
organs and their nerves would have been highly developed. That,
on the contrary, these organs are also absent, is probably to be ex-
plained by the fact that the animal is bathed on all sides by the blood
of the bee, and thus lives in a medium which is highly organized, and
requires, probably, scarcely any further elaboration.

Moreover, although this absence of certain important parts is carried
to an extreme in the present animal, we find in other JSTematoids a con-
siderable approach to the same condition. Iudeed, until within the last
few years, we had scarcely any reliable knowledge of the nervous sys-
tem in any of the ]S"ematoids ; lately, however, it has been figured and
described at length in several genera, as, for instance, in Strongylus,
Ascaris, Oxyuris, Gordius, and Mermis; but even in Yan Beneden's
Prize Memoir, " Sur les Vers Intestinaux," the nervous system is
scarcely so much as mentioned ; and it seems very doubtful whether the
filaments referred to by Meissner in Mermis as nerves, do not rather be-
long to the muscular system; while the so-called supra-oesophageal gan-
glion is asserted by Schneider to be really the oesophagus.

In the JNematoids generally the intestinal canal is a straight tube,
reaching from one end of the body to the other. In Mermis and Gor-
dius,* however, we meet with a totally different and very abnormal
type, which it is unnecessary for me here to describe. It is sufficient to
say that, whereas in these two genera there is no stomach, and that,
while in Mermis the oesophagus is small, and in Gordius quite rudi-
mentary, I have in the mature female Sphaerularia been unable to de-
tect any trace of them at all.

The same is the case with the muscular system. I have often
opened the body along one side, and then stretched out the skin. In
this manner it may be examined with a high power; but I have never
been able to see any structure in the least like muscular filaments. The
entire absence of motion confirms this view.

* The intestinal canal is quite short also in some other worms, as, for instance, in
Nemertes.

48 ORIGINAL ARTICLES.

Ill fact, the interior of the body is wholly occupied by two relatively
enormous organs — the double series of secretory cells, and the ovary.

The former of these extends in a straight line from one end of the
body to the other, being attached at the extremities, but otherwise
lying loose in the interior. The cells lie side by side, and thus form a
double series. Some of them are very large indeed, being even as much
as Trth of an inch in length by ^rd in breadth. Others, however, are
not above half as long, though they do not differ much in width. They
are not arranged with any regularity as to size, so that often a long one
lies by a short one, in which case, however, there is no gap; but the
series becomes more or less alternate, until, perhaps, another difference
brings each two cells again nearly opposite to one another.

Each of the large cells contains a thick fluid, and about seven or
eight transparent nuclei, which are of tolerably even size, and about
TQ8y jj th of an inch in diameter.

A very similar organ to this has been described by Meissner in
Mermis albicans, where also it consists of a double series of large cells,
with nuclei. The large cells, however, are full of oil globules, and the
nuclei contain crystals. In Mermis nigrescens and in Gordius the fat-
body consists of a large number of much smaller cells. In the last-
named genera this fat body is continuous, with a very short oesophagus ;
and I have therefore examined the two ends of it, to see whether the
same was true for Sphserularia. I never, however, found anything in
the least like the narrow oesophagus and peculiar stomachal sacs of
Mermis, nor the small mouth and short oesophagus of Gordius. It
seems, however, that this corpus adiposum must be considered as ho-
mologous with the intestine of the Nematodes, although no central
cavity has been formed in it.

The ovary is about four inches and a half in length ; it commences
near one end of the body, as a fine tube about yoV o*n °^ an ^ncn ^n ^~
ameter, and gradually increases to about y^th, after which it slightly
diminishes, then again expands into an uterus y\)th in diameter, and
then finally contracts to about g^th, and opens externally at the extre-
mity of the other end of the body. It lies perfectly free in the general
cavity, but near the vulva is connected with the large fat-cells. The
female generative organs of Sphserularia differ therefore considerably
from those of Mermis and Gordius, both of which have a double ovary
connected with the vulva by a short oviduct.

According to Claparede,* in all Nematoidea, the Purkinjean vesicle
is the first-formed part of the egg : —

" II parait certain," he says, " que chez tous les Nematoides la vesicule germinative
est l'element primaire de Toeuf. Le blastogene n'ayant chez VAscaris mucronata qu'une
largeur d'environ 0m,013, ne peut comprendre plus que deux vesicules germinatives dans
sa largeur. Ces vesicules s'entourent d'une mince couche d'une substance glutineuse et
incolore. C'est la le premier rudiment du vitellus. Nous n'avons pas rencontre d'indi-
vidus chez lesquels les oeufs eussent attaint un developperaent plus considerable."

De la Formation et de la Fecondation des CEufs chez les Vers Nematodes, p. 38.

LT7SB0CK ON SPH^HULASIA B0M3T. 49

Leuokart, also, expresses himself in a very similar manner. Meissner,
however, as is well known, has given a different, and very remarkable
acconnt of the development of the eggs in Mermis. According to him,
the eggs commence as a cell with a nucleus; the nucleus divides, and
the new nuclei become the germinal vesicles, while the old cell- wall is
gradually produced into follicles, into each one of which a germinal ve-
sicle enters. Finall}*, the follicles are, by gradual constriction, separated
from one another ; and in this manner a whole festoon of egg?, besides
several abortive follicles, originate directly from the moditication of a
single cell.

Sphaerularia offers so many points of agreement with Mermis, that
the development of the eggs naturally became specially interesting ; and
although my observations are very incomplete, I can ac least say, that,
if the account given by Meissner is correct, there is in this respect, at
least, no similarity between the two genera.

At the extreme end of the ovary I found a large cell with a nucleus.
Following this cell are a great number of small vesicles, which much
resemble true nucleated cells. They occupy the whole cavity of the
ovary, and each of them is about g^o-th of an inch in diameter. These
are at iirst transparent, but gradually become more and more opaque on
their inner side, from the deposition of minute yolk globules. The Pur-
kinjean vesicle is also distinctly visible, but I could see no macula. As
the ovary widens, the eggs gradually become wedge-shaped, the outer,
larger portion remaining clear, so that in this part of the ovary there is
a transparent border, with an opaque central axis. This axis, which is
known under the name of "rachis," becomes gradually smaller and
smaller, being absorbed into the growing egg, which becomes more
and more opaque, and assumes a ronnd shape, the Purkinjean vesicle
remaining for some time visible in it, and containing a single macula.

"When, however, it has entered the wide part of the tube, which we
may probably call the uterus, it has again become' elongated, and has
lost the Purkinjean vesicle, and the yolk has begun to undergo segmen-
tation. PL I.,/ 11, represents a very common state of the egg at the
beginning of this process: the first two yolk-spheres, each with its nucleus,
lie at the two extremities of the egg; and the central part is occupied by
a mass of yolk, divided into an uncertain number of irregular masses,
which however contain no nuclei, and are not regular spheres of seg-
mentation. Farther down the uterus we find eggs in all stages of seg-
mentation (PI. I.,/. 13); and in several instances I could distinctly
see the nucleus dividing, as in PI. I.,/. 12, in preparation for the next
division of the yolk. The segmentation is already far advanced when
the egg is laid, but I never found in the uterus any eggs with a fully de^
veloped embryo.

I noticed a few specimens in which all the eggs near the vulva were
broken up into irregular masses, and in one specimen this was even car-
ried so far, that it began when the eggs were onty about half grown.
In normal eggs, the development of the young takes place in the man-
ner usual among Nematoids.

VOL. I. N. H. E. H

50 OEIGINAL ARTICLES.

The young animals are born soon after the eggs are laid. They are
about -gTjth of an inch in length, and grV o^n ^n diameter at the broadest
part. They are very active ; the skin has the appearance of being ringed.
The head is pointed; the tail ends more abruptly, and makes a sudden
curve. The anterior end of the body is transparent; but the rest is
darkened by minute, round, strongly-refracting globules. As soon as
the Humble Bees come out in spring, young Sphgerulari may be found
together with old ones, in some of them. I have met with them from
the beginning of May till the middle of July, and the whole abdominal
cavity of the humble bee often swarms with these little worms. In
order to ascertain roughly what the number might be, I washed out
the inside of a bee, and then collected all the young Sphgerulari to-
gether. I then put them into a measuring bottle, and after shaking
up, poured away half of the contents. Repeating this process, until
only about a hundred were left, it was easy to calculate what the num-
ber must have been, if half had been removed a given number of times,
though, of course, no great accuracy was thus obtainable. I repeated
this experiment rive times, and thence concluded that one specimen
contained about fifty thousand young Sphgerulari, three about sixty
thousand, and one even over a hundred thousand ! It seems almost in-
conceivable that a bee should live with such an immense number of pa-
rasites in its body ; and still more so, that it should, meanwhile, go
about its daily duties as if nothing was the matter.

These experiments, however, give but a faint idea of the number
of young to which a single female Sphaerularia might give birth. In every
case the whole ovary was full of eggs, in various stages of development;
and, considering the minuteness of the eggs, and the size of the ovary,
the number present must be enormous. If the young worms can in
any manner leave the bee without destroying it, there seems no reason
why nearly all of these should not succesively come to maturity, and be
hatched ; but, even supposing that this is not the case, and that in the
preceding experiment I have ascertained the greatest, or nearly the
greatest number of young Sphgerulari which can be produced in a
single bee, still the chances against any one of them attaining to matu-
rity must be very great ; for it is evident that if the sexes of a given
species are equal in number, and if the species is neither increasing nor
diminishing, the chances against any given young one attaining to ma-
turity may be obtained by halving the average number of young ones
produced by each female.

It would seem, at first sight, that the history of the young Sphae-
rularia was very simple. "We might suppose that the infected bees
would die in their nests; and that the young worms would then leave
them, and immediately eat their way into other bees. This view would
also be supported by the fact, that, at least as far as my experience
goes, each infected bee contains, on an average, five or six Sphgerulari.
Two reasons, however, inconsistent though they may appear, mili-
tate against this supposition. The first is, that too large a propor-
tion of the youug Sphgerulari would live ; and the second is, that the

LUBBOCK ON SPHJ2B.ULARTA BOMBI. 51

whole race must soon perish. For, if their history were so simple, there
seems no reason why a large proportion of young might not survive ; and
the species would then continually increase in numbers, which is impos-
sible. This argument is, however, far from conclusive, because the in-
crease may be prevented by disease, or by some enemy. On the other
hand, there would, under this theory, be no means by which the parasites
could pass from bees of one nest to those of another; so that in each
species we should have one race infested by Sphaerulari, and another
free from them; in which case, it can hardly be doubted that the former
race would, in the struggle for existence, gradually be supplanted by
the latter, and thus, in time, the Sphaerulari would all perish.

That the young Sphaerulari can live some time after leaving the
body of the bee, and without entering any other animal, I ascertained
satisfactorily. On the 25th of last May I took some from the body of a
B. lucorum and put them in water, where some of them remained alive
until the 9th of August, though, during the latter part of the time,
they were far from lively. In this case, therefore, they lived in water
for more than ten weeks. Whether they would have lived as long in
damp earth, I cannot say, but it seems not improbable ; and as we know
that humble bees often crawl about on the earth under leaves and grass,
they may, in this manner, give the young Sphaerulari an opportunity
of entering them. I tried to solve this question, by wetting humble
bees with water containing young Sphaerularias ; but, partly owing to
the difficulty of keeping these insects in confinement alive for more
than a few days, and partly, perhaps, from the difficulty of detecting a
single young worm in the abdomen of a bee, my experiments were quite
unsuccessful.*

I had hoped to have thrown some light upon this question, and also
upon the metamorphosis, by obtaining some specimens in autumn and
winter. Up to the present time, however, I have only found them in
May, June, and July. This is partly, perhaps, owing to the fact, that
large females are most easily obtainable in these months ; and it is un-
lucky for me that the last two years have been very unfavourable to
bees — 1860, indeed, so much so, that it is said (Zoologist, September,
1860), to have been the worst year for Hynmoptera since 1828.

I have, however, examined eight large females of B. lucorum in
August, and three in October; two of B. terrestris in August, two in
September, and two in October ; if, therefore, at this season, the Sphae-
rulari were as numerous and as large as in spring and summer, I
should almost certainly have found some^ If, on the other hand, they
were quite small, they may easily have been overlooked.

From all these facts, I am inclined to think that humble bees, when
infested with Sphaerularia, live for a while as if nothing were the matter ;
and that only when the young Sphaerulari, or the majority of them,

* I found the best plan wae to put the bees in a glass with moist sugar. They seemed
also to live longer if put in the dark, probably from the soothing effect upon their nerves.
In this manner I kept one bee alive for more than a month.

52 ORIGINAL ARTICLES.

are hatched, the parasites appropriate to themselves so much of the
nourishment belonging to the bee, that the latter becomes seriously
incommoded by their presence. As from the misappropriation of its
blood the bee became weaker and weaker, it would, probably, feeling
its end approaching, crawl into some long grass, or other place of con-
cealment.

As soon as the bee was dead, the young Spha3rulari probably work
their way out of it, and immediately begin to look out for a new victim.
Those who are so fortunate as to meet with a large female, or queen,
may enter it, as young Gordii have been seen to enter other insects,
but do not, in all probability, increase much in size at first. This I
infer, firstly, because I have not found Sphserulari in autumn, but prin-
cipally because they would in this case be much less injurious to the
bee than if they immediately began to increase in size. "When the
spring commences, the female Sphserularia probably begins to grow
rapidly, and soon lays eggs. I am inclined to think that young Spha>
rulari also occur in workers, and that I have overlooked them on ac •
count of their minuteness ; since there seems no reason to suppose that
the young Sphaerulari have sufficient intelligence to distinguish Queen
Bees from workers, or even from other insects.

M. Fabre, who has so graphically described (Ann. des Sc. ISTat, 1858)
the extraordinary series of adventures through which the young of
Meloe attain to maturity, found that, though their only chance of life
was to attach themselves to Anthophora, or to its parasites Melectes and
Coelioxys, yet they were equally ready to spring on other insects, or even
on pieces of straw, if brought within reach, though, curiously enough,
they seem, according to M. Fabre, to gain wisdom by experience, and
not to be so easily duped a second time: —

"II est vrai," says M. Fabre, "qu'arrives sur ces objets inanimes, ils reconnaissent
bientot qu'ils ont fait fausse route, ce que Ton voit aisement a. leurs marches et contre-
marches desesperees, et a leur tendance a revenir sur la fleur s'ils en est encore temps.
Ceux qui se sont aussi jet6s etourdiment sur un bout de paille, et qu'on laisse retourner
sur la fleur, se reprennent diflicilement au meme piege. II y a done aussi pour ces points
vivants une memoire, une experience des cboses!"

I have not myself bad any opportunity of repeating these experi-
ments; but some months ago, being on a geological excursion in a sand-
pit, where there were few, if any flowers, I was surprised to see on a
herbaceous plant several yellow flowers with which I was quite un-
acquainted. On gathering one or two, however, my surprise was in-
creased, when the supposed flower broke up, and ran away, turning out
to consist entirely of small, yellow larvse. Unfortunately I had neither
bottle nor pillbox with me, and was unable to carry any specimens
home ; but it occurred to me at the time that they were young Meloes ;
and that, in the absence of any flowers near them, they had in this
manner attempted to supply the deficiency. I was certainly completely
taken in ; and as I think that my eyes are better than those of most
bees, I have little doubt that they also would have fallen into the trap.

LtTBBOCK ON SPHJEKULAEIA. BOMBI. 53

MALE.

All the specimens met with by V. Siebold, and all the large ones which
I have seen, were females. I observed, however, in the second specimen
which came under my notice, that there was a small nematoid worm at-
tached to the large female, PI. 1,/. 1, A, near to the end in which lies the
free extremity of the ovary. This minute worm was apparently overlooked
both by LeonDufour and Y. Siebold ; or, if they saw it at all, they proba-
bly mistook it for one of the ordinary young ones. It is always, how-
ever, in very close connexion with the female, the skins of the two being
firmly attached to one another; and, if the small worm is torn away, there
is a sort of rent at the spot where the attachment takes place. On the
other hand, we know that in many nematoid worms the male is much
smaller than the female, and the two are, during copulation, closely con-
nected together; in Syngamus trachealis, indeed, this is so much the
case, that the pair have been mistaken for a single animal. Moreover,
although the small attached worm in Sphserularia is not altogether ex-
actly like the ordinary young ones, still, in size and general appearance,
it remarkably resembles them ; and, lastly, unless we may regard it as
being the male, that sex is, as yet, entirely unknown. Although, there-
fore, I have not been able to distinguish any generative organs, or trace
of spermatozoa, I think that I am justified in considering that in Sphoe-
rularia the male is far smaller than the female, and that the two are
fastened together in a certain definite manner and position. The shape
of tail is also quite different from that of the larva ; in PI. 1, /. 6, I have
represented one of the young worms ; and in /. 7, one of the attached
specimens ; and it will be seen that the tail is quite dissimilar, being
straighter, and more pointed in the latter. Of what nature, then, is this
minute worm, and what are its relations to the large female Sphaerularia ?
Three possibilities only occur to me, viz. : that it might be the larva, a
parasite, or the male.

There is, however, no instance in the Nematoidea of any such mode
of metamorphosis; and the little creature, though quite motionless, looks
too fresh and transparent to be merely the shrivelled-up skin of the
young. The difference of shape just alluded to, also, militates against
this view, which is, I think, quite untenable.

Nor is the parasitism of the little creature a more probable supposition.
In the first place, the almost, if not quite, invariable presence of the
little worm speaks against it ; and, secondly, the mode of its attachment
is almost equally conclusive, as no Nematoid worms are external para-
sites.* Moreover, it is evident that this little worm must perish at the
same time as, or soon after, the Sphoerularia, and it is equally clear that
in the month of July this latter has not long to live ; if, therefore, the

* It might, however, be said, that as this law arises from the necessity that the ex-
ternal surface should be bathed by animal fluids, the present case might be an exception
caused by the fact that the little worm, though external to the female Spha&rularia, was
internal as regards the Bee.

54 ORIGINAL ARTICLES.

small worm was a different species, we ought to see in it eggs in course
of development, which, however, I have never found to be the case.

The extraordinary disproportion in size between the sexes, though an
extreme case, is not entirely without analogy in the animal kingdom.
Nordmann first (" Micrographische Beitrage," Pt. 2 — see also Huxley's
Lectures, " Medical Times and Gazette," August 22nd, 1857, p. 187),
discovered that in certain Crustacea the males are much smaller than the
females. This is the case, principally, in the genera Actheres, Brachiella,
Chondracanthus, and Anchorella, in which the minute male may gene-
rally be found attached to the female in the neighbourhood of the vulva.
The minute and " complemental" males, discovered by Mr. Darwin in
the genera Scalpellum and Ibla, afford .cases in point from among the
Cirripedia-

In spite, however, of analogies pointing in the same direction, one
cannot but be astounded at the existence of a species in which, as in the
present, the male is more than twenty-eight thousand times smaller than
the female, which, if we may so say, helongs to, it.

I was not able very satisfactorily to ascertain the manner in which
the two are fastened together; but it seemed as if the large worm had a
small sac-like depression of the skin, PI. 1 , /. 14, into which a correspond-
ing projection of the small one closely fitted. The inner contents of the
body passed into the projection, but I could not perceive any penis or
spermatozoa, nor was the ovary of the female connected with the place
of attachment. The two creatures adhere together more closely than this
condition, taken by itself, could account for ; and, as in the somewhat
similar case of Syngamus the union is effected by the presence of a sort
of cement, it was natural to suppose that the same might be the case
here. Neither Mr. Busk, however, who was kind enough to look at
the junction, nor I, could see any trace of cement; and it is evident,
therefore, that if the two skins are not continuous, they are, at least, per-
haps by long contact, very closely united to one another.

Considering all these facts, there seems every probability that in
this little creature we have the male Sphserularia ; but until the Sper-
matozoa and the transformations are known to us, the fact cannot be re-
garded as being conclusively established.

It only remains for us to consider the natural position and affinities
of Sphaerularia, though it will not be possible to come to any satisfactory
conclusion until we know more of the anatomy and development of the
young. It is, of course, evident that Leon Dufour was right in placing
it among the Nematodes ; but when that order was limited by the sepa-
ration of the Gordiacei, it is not so clear that it is correct to leave Sphaa-
rularia in its former position. The principal differences between the
two orders (Siebold, " Anat. comp.," t. i., p. 113), as given bySiebold,
are that the true Nematodes possess an anus and an organ for copu-
lation, while in Gordiacei the one is always, and the other sometimes,
wanting. According to both these characters, Sphserularia would be-
long to the latter order, in which, accordingly, it is correctly classed by
Diesing and Meissner, although V. Siebold, Eudolphi, Owen, and other

LUBBOCK ON BPH^RULAIlIA BOMBI. 55

helminthologists, class it with tlie true Nematodes. The absence of an
organ is, however, not generally so important a character as its struc-
ture : thus, for instance, we see in insects, that the absence of wings is
less significant than are the differences in their structure, so that we have
wingless representatives of all the large orders. The characters which
induce us to separate Sphseralaria, Gordius, and Mermis, from the Ne-
matodes being principally negative, are not to my mind quite satisfac-
tory. Schneider differs also so much from Meissner as to the ana-
tomy of Gordius and Mermis, that it will be necessary to say a few
words on this subject, before considering the affinities of Sphaerularia.
The so-called supra- oesophageal ganglion of Mermis he denies to be a
portion of the nervous system at all, and considers it rather to be an
oesophageal bulb, homologous with what is found in many Nematodes.
If this be granted, the principal argument in favour of the nervous na-
ture of the so-called peripheral nerve-system falls to the ground, and
with it one of the principal differences between Sphaerularia and Mer-
mis. "While, however, we know nothing about the nervous system of
Sphaerularia, and are in such a state of uncertainty as to that of Gor-
dius and Mermis, it is evident that we cannot avail ourselves of it for
the purposes of classification. Meissner's extraordinary account of the
digestive organs in Mermis is well known. According to him, the oeso-
phagus is open along one side, thus constituting a trough rather than
a tube, which sends out from time to time lateral branches, each of which
terminates in a spherical cavity, which he calls a stomach-cell. Ac-
cording to Schneider, however, the oesophagus is a closed tube, and
the " stomach-cell" is only a round, firm body, containing a nucleated
structure, but without any central cavity, or any communication with
the fat-body. This " fat-body" is probably homologous with the intes-
tine of ordinary Nematodes, but no cavity has been developed in it; and
while Meissner describes thirty connecting tubes between it and the
oesophagus, Schneider denies that any such junction takes place; the
two organs lie side by side, but have no communication with one ano-
ther.

Schneider exemplifies this by the case of Ascaris rigida, it., in which
the oesophagus opens, not at the anterior end, but at the side of the in-
testine. If, he says, this condition were exaggerated, and the lateral
connexion removed, we should have exactly the case of Mermis. In
Mermis albicans the fat-body consists of two rows of large cells, as in
Sphaerularia ; but in Gordius the cells are much smaller and more nume-
rous, still, however, solidly filling the tube; while in Mermis nigrescens
the cells are smaller, and only clothe the outer tube, and leave a large
central cavity; thus completing the series, and giving us a most interest-
ing gradation, connecting the corpus adiposum of Sphaerularia with the
ordinary intestine of any common Nematode. This corpus adiposum,
therefore, is homologous, not with the whole intestinal canal of Nema-
todes, but only with the intestine ; and we find, in fact, that in
Gordius the oesophagus is very short, and opens at once into the anterior
end of the corpus adiposum ; so that, to pass from this genus to Sphaeru-

56 ORIGINAL ARTICLES.

laria, it would only be necessary to shorten the oesophagus a little more,
and then the wall of the corpus adiposum would be immediately attached
to that of the body. So far, therefore, as concerns the corpus adiposum
and the oesophagus, Sphaerularia agrees neither with Gordius nor Mer-
mis, nor indeed with one more than the other, since, if it agrees with
Mermis albicans in the double series of large fat-cells, it has no
oesophagus, and in this respect more nearly resembles Gordius.

Sphaerularia agrees with Gordius in the possession of a terminal vulva,
but differs both from that genus and from Mermis in having only a
single ovary. As regards the development of the young, Sphaerularia
resembles Gordius in undergoing a metamorphosis ; but with this remark-
able difference, that whilst the former begins with the filiform or
Nematoid condition, the latter ends with it. Mermis, on the other
hand, undergoes no metamorphosis ; in all stages of development this
worm, like the embryo of Sphaerularia and the adult of Gordius, is fili-
form and Nematoid ; so that we may say of the three genera, that the
metamorphosis is progressive in Gordius, absent in Mermis, and retro-
gressive in Sphaerularia.

On the whole, it is, I think, evident that Sphaerularia constitutes a
group equivalent to Gordius or Mermis, and indeed farther removed
from them than they are from one another. Omitting, then, those
points as to which, from the imperfection of our knowledge, no conclu-
sions are at present attainable, we shall get the following as the prin-
cipal characteristics of the three genera: —

Mermis albicans. — Skin partially covered with papillae. (Esopha-
gus long, contained in an outer tube, within the outer membrane of
which is a series of nuclei, at sub-equal distances. No intestine or anus.
Organs of excretion three in number, and occupying the ventral and
lateral lines of the body. Ovary double ; vulva opening at the middle
of the body. No metamorphosis, the young being filiform. Males of mo-
derate size, free. Spiculae two in number.

Gordius. — Skin smooth, or in part provided with short spines.
(Esophagus very short. Corpus adiposum containing several series of
cells. No intestine nor anus. Ovary double ; vulva terminal. Meta-
morphosis progressive, the young not being filiform. Males of mode-
rate size, free. No spiculae.

Sphjsrttlaria. — Skin covered with spherules. (Esophagus want-
ing. Corpus adiposum consisting of a double series of large cells. No
intestine nor anus. Ovary single ; vulva terminal. Metamorphosis re-
trogressive, the young being filiform. Males very minute, attached to
the females. No spiculae.

Thus, then, we see that Gordius and Mermis differ very materially
from one another, while Sphaerularia departs even more from the com-
mon type, and indeed agrees with the other two in little except the ab-
sence of an anus, and the very peculiar corpus adiposum. M. Schneider
is therefore, no doubt, right in proposing to divide the Gordiaceae into
two families, to which we must now add a third — Sphaerulariaceae, for
the genus Sphaerularia. For the present we must leave the characters

m'donnell on the electric organ of the skate. 57

of these families to be trie same as those of the genera. The arrange-
ment of the cells constituting the corpus adiposurn, the relative size of
the males, and the position of the vulva, will probably, however, be
found somewhat variable, and are perhaps characters of not more than
generic importance ; in which case the arrangement of the nervous sys-
tem, the presence or absence of an oesophagus, the presence of a single
or double ovary, and the development of the young, will, with the ab-
sence of the anus, remain as the principal family characters.

I shall endeavour to get some humble bees in the course of this win-
ter, in order if possible to determine some of the many points which yet
remain to be ascertained ; and I should feel very grateful to any one
who would send me even a single specimen of any species of Bombus
between the months of December and April. In the meantime, Sphae-
rularia still remains, as it was when Diesing wrote the " Systema Hel-
niinthurn,'' a "genus inquirendum."

description of plate i.

1. Sphceridaria bomhi x 15. A. Small male.

2. Part of corpus adiposum x 10.

3. Free end of ovary x 250.

4. Two young eggs with rachis x 250.

5. Portion of ovary x 250.

6. Outline of young x 60.

7. Outline of male (?) x GO.

8. Head of male x 60.

9. Tail of do. do.

10. Ovary x

11. Egg, showing the commencement of segmentation, x 250.

12. Do., in a more advanced stage, x 60.

13. Young egg, still more advanced, x 250.

14. Place of union of male and female x 250. a. Part of the body
of male. b. Part of skin of female, c. Projection of male fitting into
sac-like depression of female.

VII. — On an Organ ln the Skate which appears to be the homo-
logue of the Electrical Organ of the Torpedo. By Robert
M'Donnell, M. D., F. E. C. S. I., Lecturer in the Carmichael School
of Medicine, Dublin.

In the eyes of those who look without prejudice on the theory of de-
scent with modification, the tracing out of homologies has, in recent
times, been invested with a new interest. On this theory, the compa-
rative anatomist no longer, in following out the homological relations
of parts and organs, pursues an object, captivating, but fruitless, as fas-
cinating as the solving of a puzzle, but barren as to general results.

VOL. I N. H. E. I

58 ORIGINAL ARTICLES.

On the other hand, the candid inquirer must admit, that when in
some creatures well-developed special organs exist, while in their im-
mediate kinsfolk (if I may use the term) no trace of kindred structures
has been discovered, there herein exists a grave objection to any theory
of unity of type resulting from community of descent. This difficulty
appears to have been more obvious to Mr. Darwin than to most of the
reviewers who have undertaken to criticize his views, or at least has
been more clearly and fairly stated by the former than by the latter ;
and he speaks of the case of the electrical organs of fishes as one of spe-
cial difficulty.

The presence of modified, atrophied, or rudimentary organs, consti-
tutes one of the strongest arguments in favour of Mr. Darwin's theory ;
for the supposition is as unsatisfactory as it is improbable, that such
organs are the result of what would seem a whimsical exercise of cre-
ative power in framing an organ merely for the sake of symmetry. The
total absence, however, of any trace of even an altered or rudimentary
organ representing a structure known to exist in certain members of a
group, would afford good testimony against the theory of descent ; as it
would be at least in the highest degree improbable that such a structure
should not have its homological representative existing in some form in
the immediate members of the same family.

Considering, therefore, that on the theory of Mr. Darwin it was in
the highest degree improbable that the electric organs of the Torpedo
were totally absent in the Skates, I undertook a careful search, with
the view of following out their homologies; determining to do so by trac-
ing the nerves corresponding with those which go to supply the bat-
teries of the Torpedo. I have thus been led to make out the bodies
which I conceive to be the true homologues of the Torpedo's wondrous
organs ; and the anatomical position and peculiarities of which I shall
briefly point out. If the skin be removed from the fore part of the
back of a common Skate, the following parts will be readily found, a
short distance behind the temporal orifice : — 1st. That band of the so-
called muciferous tubes which runs inwards and a little backwards from
a point external and anterior to the gills ; 2nd. The dorsal aspect of the
branchial chambers ; and, 3rd. The little snout-muscle, which ends in
a long delicate tendon, running forwards. Let the little fleshy belly of
the snout-muscle be raised and drawn outwards, and the band of tubes
dissected up and drawn forwards, in the angle between them will be
found the body sought for ; it will not, however, be very apparent to
the naked eye ; but if brushed over with some tolerably strong acetic
acid, it will become quite distinctly visible. It will be found to be
more than an inch long in an ordinary sized fish, wedged in between the
occipital muscles internally and the gills externally, covered super-
ficially by the snout-muscle and tubes already mentioned, and dipping
down so as to reach the branches of the vagus going to the branchial
arches. Its upper surface is triangular, the apex behind the base in
front, in contact with one of the large jaw muscles. When made evi-
dent by the aid of acetic acid, this little body is seen to consist of a

m'donnell on the electric organ of the skate. 59

number of quadrangular and pentangular masses, of minute size and
rather irregular form, packed closely together like a mosaic work, ar-
ranged vertically, and somewhat resembling a small conglobate gland
in appearance. Examined microscopically, it is found to consist for the
most part of an abundant, soft, yellowish substance, composed of mi-
nute round granules, nearly all equal in point of size, and apparently
devoid of nuclei. This granular matter is entangled in an abundant
areolar texture, in which, when washed several times, there are to be
discovered peculiar nucleated bodies, large, and varying considerably in
dimensions, which are at first obscured by the granular matter, and
seem to be more or less intimately connected with the small nervous
ramifications. Neither when viewed by the naked eye, nor by the aid
of the microscope, does this organ in the least resemble the tail electric
organ discovered by Stark. Unless the peculiar nucleated bodies al-
ready mentioned (and which form indeed a very small part of the mass)
be regarded as a modified condition of it, nothing like the " tissue elec-
trique" of Robin exists in the body I have described, while the tail-
organ is almost entirely made up of this tissue (Kolliker's Schwamm-
Korper).

The nerves supplying the little body which I have described are,
first, minute filaments derived from the branches of the vagus going to
the gills ; and, secondly, a larger one, derived from the posterior branch
of the fifth pair, which takes the following course : — If the large branch
of the fifth, which is found under the skin immediately behind the tem-
poral orifice, be followed backwards, it will be seen, that after escaping
from the cranial cartilage, it gives a branch backwards, which enters the
muscle behind it, and, supplying this muscle with several twigs, passes
through it to reach the body in question, which it supplies, also giving
a little twig to the snout-muscle which covers it.

On carefully inspecting this large division of the fifth pair, the dif-
ference of colour is quite obvious between that portion which is destined
to go to the ampulla, from which the so-called muciferous tubes take rise,
and that portion destined for the muscles; nor is it uninteresting to
observe, that the branch going to the supposed homologue of the electric
organ is derived from the latter. I need not say that it would be quite
impossible to trace so minute a nerve so as to find out whether, at its
origin, it may be related to the anterior or posterior columns of the cord;
but the fact mentioned tends to support the view that it is related to
the motor tract.

As the lateral line system exists in the torpedo and other electric
fish, in a rather remarkable condition of development, the opinion held
by some authors may be set aside, that it in other fishes represents the
electric organs ; the same may be said for the so-called muciferous sys-
tem of rays and sharks (which Geoffroy St. Hilaire conceived to repre-
sent the torpedo's batteries), inasmuch as this system also co-exists in
the torpedo with the electric organs.

That the tail-organs already spoken of, as discovered by Stark, and
since so well anatomised by Goodsir, Robin, Leydig, Ecker, Remak,

60 ORIGINAL ARTICLES.

and Kolliker, and more recently by Max Schultze, are not the true ho-
mologues of the electric organs of the torpedo, their position, their
structure, and nervous supply, lead me to suppose. Indeed, in so far as
this last is concerned, it indicates rather an homological relation with
the batteries of the gymnotus, which further research may more fully
establish. In alluding to the tail- organs of the skate, I may observe,
that in the dog-fish I have found, both in the embryo and the adult,
what I conceive to be those organs, in an atrophied condition. They
give rise to slight eminences, prolonged from near the vent to the tail ;
and, on transverse section, are seen like narrow chinks in the corion,
quite separated from the muscles.

It may occur to some, as it did at first to myself, that the organ
which I have described in the skate may represent the " appareil folli-
culaire nerveux," noticed by Savi, and by him stated to exist only in the
electric rays. I think, however, that this apparatus is clearly an appen-
dage of the so-called muciferous tube system ; and, agreeing with the
■views of Leydig, that these appurtenances of the fifth pair are tactile
organs, it does not appear that there is any sufficient reason to consider
that any homological relation exists between the "appareil follicu-
laire nerveux" and the bodies in question. In the electric rays which
I have examined, I have not found the body which I regard as the homo-
logue of the electric organ ; this fact, indeed, taken along with the con-
sideration of the sources from which the nerves of the organ are derived,
are the chief points on which the notion rests, that it may be the homo-
logue of the electric organ at all; but one also cannot help observing in its
position, with reference to the band of muciferous tubes, the lateral line,
the temporal orifice, and the posterior branch of the fifth pair, evidence
in support of the same idea. In stating, however, that the organ is
absent in the electric rays (or, at least, only represented by their bat-
teries), I should say that I cannot positively assert this; for the torpedos
which have come into my hands have all been partially dissected, and it
is possible that the body alluded to may have been Removed. I may
beg of naturalists who have opportunities of doing so to determine this
point with certainty.

YIIL— I^OTES ON THE ANATOMY OF THE ALIMENTARY StSTEM! OF THE AxO-

lotl (Siredon Mexicantjm). By E. Perceval Wright, A. M. Dub.
and Oxon., M. B., F. L. S., Lecturer on Zoology, University of
Dublin (with Plate II.).

The earlier investigators of the anatomy of the axolotl appear to have
regarded it as a larval form. This, some of them, as Rusconi, did, judg-
ing merely from its external appearance ; others, as Cuvier, even after a
somewhat minute investigation into its anatomy.

Hunter, it is true, was convinced that they were adult forms, and
merited but little the censures passed upon him by Busconi, who, from
constantly studying the salamanders and their metamorphosis, dogmati-

WEIGHT ON THE AXOLOTL. 61

cally refused to believe in the existence of a persistent larval form
among the Amphibia. I think, however, it is more than probable that
Cuvier's memoir on "Doubtful lleptiles," published in Humboldt's Ke-
cueil d'Observations de Zoologie,* was seen by Rusconi, or at least heard
of by him, as it was read before the French Institute, as early as Janu-
ary, 1807 ; and this great anatomist insists so strongly on axolotl being
a larval condition of some salamander, and saw so many things in its
anatomy that he says strengthened him in this opinion, that it is really
no wonder the Italian salamander- observer, feeling himself so strongly
supported, indulged in a rather contemptuous laugh at our great Eng-
lish anatomist. Cuvier's account of the visceral anatomy is so short,
that we venture to subjoin it here; it will be found at page 109 of the
work referred to, and is illustrated with several plates. With the greatest
deference to the memory of one of the greatest of modern anatomists,
and the author of the "Memoirs of the Mollusca," a work which exhibits
a wonderful skill in minute dissection, yet I have never met with an ana-
tomical description which seems so decidedly written to prove a foregone
conclusion. Cuvier thought axolotl a larval form ; through the kindness
of Humboldt, he was given specimens, from the anatomy of which much
was to be proven ; and yet we read such statements as that the " spleen
is very small, and in the middle of the mesentery ;" that the " oviducts
were so very delicate, that one could perceive them with difficulty j" with
what justice these facts, tending to prove an immaturity of condition,
are stated, will be seen a little further on :—

" In axolotl," writes Cuvier, " tbe oesophagus is short, plicated longitudinally, and is
continuous with the stomach; this latter is large, membranous; the forepart is a little
plumpish, but towards tbe pyloric orifice, it is much contracted. I found it full in the
two specimens (examined) of small fresh-water Crustacea, strongly resembling our native
ones. The animals had swallowed these without masticating them ; and their legs were
found undigested down as far as the rectum.

"The intestinal tract is tolerably large; more especially the portion nearest the liver,
and tolerably long ; it consists of two principal loops, and is furnished neither with a
ccecum nor internal valve of any kind.

"The liver is rectangular, and without any deep lobes. I could not detect the pre-
sence of a gall-bladder.

" The spleen is very small, and is placed in the middle of the mesentery ; this latter
is as we find it in the ordinary salamanders. Indeed, all the intestines are just those of
a salamander.

" The ovaries are very small, flabby, and contained hardly a trace of ova3. They
occupied the same place, and are furnished with the same greasy appendages that are
found in the common salamanders. Again, the oviducts are so delicate (si freles) that
one can scarce perceive them.

"From all these marks of immaturity, and that intimate resemblance which all the
viscera bear to those of the salamander and their larva, I conclude that the Mexican
axolotl is but the larva of some huge salamander, perhaps the same that is alluded to
by Micbaux."

* " Recueil d'Observations de Zoologie et d'Anatomie comparee faites dans l'Ocean
Atlantique, dans l'interieur du Nouveau Continent et dans la Mer du Sud, pendant 1799,
1803." Par Al. de Humboldt et A. Bonpland. ler volume. 1811.

62 ORIGINAL ARTICLES.

Before proceeding to treat of the alimentary canal, I may take this
opportunity to refer to a paper by Sir Everard Home, in the Philoso-
phical Tranactions for 1824, " On the Generative Organs of the Mexican
Proteus." The paper itself, so far as anatomy is concerned, contains
little that is noteworthy. The specimens dissected were discovered by
Bullock, in a lake three miles above Mexico — this lake being some
8000 feet above the sea level, and of 60° of temperature. Those taken
at Lesenco are brought by the peasantry to the Mexican markets in
thousands, in strings of from sixty to seventy each. This paper, how-
ever, is illustrated, and the artist has done his work, and done it well ;
and his master has given names to the different parts figured. Prom a
careful comparison of the plates representing the organs of generation in
the male and female axolotl, with my own preparations, I am pre-
pared to acknowledge the very general correctness of these fine draw-
ings. The organs in the female, in an immature state, are likewise
figured; and the ovaries are neither so small, even in an unimpreg-
nated condition; nor the oviducts so delicate as to afford any diffi-
culty in seeing them, to an ordinary investigator; even the kidneys
and urinary bladder (?) are quite perceptible to the most careless ob-
server.

On opening the walls of the abdomen, from the junction of the pec-
toral muscles to the curious cloacal aperture, and turning back the mus-
cles, the following viscera are seen {vide PI. II., fig. 1), — First, the large
and well-marked liver, slightly divided into two lobes by the entrance
of the suspensory ligament; next the convolutions of the intestines, end-
ing in the strongly-marked straight rectum ; on each side of which we
find two glandular bodies — the supposed Cowper's glands of Sir Eve-
rard Home ; above these, and below the coils of intestine, the apices of
the kidneys are to be seen. If we now remove the left lobe of the liver,
we will discover the stomachal portion of the alimentary canal of an
elongated shape — the oesophageal portion, as Cuvier says, a little plump-
ish and enlarged, and the pyloric end much contracted. But we also
have no difficulty in finding a glandular organ, closely attached to the
middle-third of the stomach, and tied down to it by a mesenteric attach-
ment (vide Eig. 2), which is the spleen — said by Cuvier to be placed in
the midst of the mesentery, and to be very small. In Eig. 2 it is re •
presented of the natural size. At a short distance below the junction
of this gland with the stomach, the intestine contracts, and* twists upon
itself. There is no true pyloric valve, but this turn in the intestine to
all intents and purposes acts as one. The intestine next proceeds
towards the liver. This organ is large, its upper surface concave, its
lower convex ; it is divided by the suspensory ligament, which attaches
it to the walls of the abdomen, into two lobes ; in the adult male it is
of a dark brownish colour, mottled; it overlaps the stomach and portions
of the small intestine. The right lobe is the larger, and is slightly
notched on its outer free margin, to receive the well-developed gall-
bladder, which, though not mentioned in the text by Cuvier, is very

W1UGHT ON THE AXOLOTL. 63

imperfectly figured in one of the Plates ;* when inflated, it is pyriform ;
in the empty condition, it assumes the outline of the liver (see Plate II
Fig. 3). The biliary ducts open into the intestine, just where it is
connected with the liver, by a common duct.

The small intestines make two principal convolutions, and are kept
in their place by a well- developed mesentery. I could detect no trace of
a pancreas. As the intestine approaches the rectum, it becomes exces-
sively narrow, and at last ends almost by intussusception (Fig. 5) ; the wide
and capacious rectum ends in the cloaca. Before examining the internal
structure of these parts, it may be well to compare them with similar
organs occurring in the salamanders. For this purpose I have selected
Triton cr (status and Salamander maculosa. So far as the oesophagus and
stomach are concerned, the relative size and proportions are nearly
similar. The stomach is more pear-shaped in S. maculosa. In Triton,
the spleen is a small, flat, oval gland, attached to the right side of the
stomach by a loose fold of mesentery, but by no means closely so ; in
Salamander,! it is a long, narrow, ribbon-like body, closely attached to
the right side of the stomach. In Triton, the liver is small, but di-
vided into lobes; the gall-bladder is well developed. In Salamander,
the liver is rather small in proportion, not much divided, and the gall-
bladder is also small. In both Triton and Salamander, the small intes-
tine is very well developed, and in both does it contract as it approaches
the rectum, which here, as in Siredon, is much wider than the rest of
the intestinal canal.

In the axolotl the oesophagus is short, the mucous surface is longi-
tudinally and finely striated, the external muscular fibres are circular,
and act as a sphincter; in the stomachy the mucous membrane is conti-
nuous with that of the oesophagus, but here it is thrown into deep folds.
The fine striae of the oesophageal portion are continued; and at what
may be considered as the cardiac orifice, these folds of the mucous sur-
face are brought into such close apposition, their dimensions at this spot,
too, are so greatly increased, forming four or five little protuberances ;
as to take the place of a valve and effectually prevent any regurgita-
tion into the mouth. Though there are a few file-like teeth in the upper
jaw, yet they serve more for organs of prehension, and cannot be of much
use in mastication; and, undoutedly, the process of comminuting the
food is mostly accomplished in the stomach.

In this organ, as I have said, the mucous membrane which lines the

*Loc. cit., Plate 12, Fig. 4.

f Here I would observe, that I cannot agree'with Schneider, who, in his Natural
History of Amphibia, has united the aquatic (Triton) with the land (Salamander)
Salamanders ; although in both genera the ovjb are impregnated before being laid, yet
in the one (Triton), we have the eggs deposited on aquatic plants; the young Tritons,
when hatched, retaining their branchiae for a longer or shorter length of time ; in the
other (Salamander) we have the oviducts large and capacious, the ovae are hatched
in them, making their exit into the world almost miniatures of their parent. Surely
such embryological distinctions point to at least a difference in the general — in the ordi-
nary acceptation of this word — of these creatures.

64 . ORIGINAL ARTICLES.

whole alimentary tract is thrown into a series of very deep folds, which
appear to be a continuation of the longtitudinal mucous folds of the oeso-
phagus; they wind to and fro in such a manner, bending backwards and
forwards, and interlacing with each other, as strongly to resemble the ap-
pearance presented by the gizzard of a fowl (see Fig. 4, PL II.); and
when acting under the control of the muscular coats of the stomach,
must form a very effective triturating apparatus. Pour or five of these
folds enter into the intestine, and here, for about a quarter of an inch,
they become but very slightly elevated ; as they approach that peculiar se-
miflexion in the intestine referred to above, they increase in number, and
also in depth (Fig. 4), and, from their very close and compact appear-
ance, I am led to suspect that this portion of the intestine, between the
pyloric orifice of the true stomach and the orifice of the biliary ducts, is
more than an ordinary duodenum, and acts somewhat as a secondary
stomachal cavity. This idea is strengthened by the additional fact, that
the true stomach is lined with a series of minute pores, thickly scattered
over the mucous surface, and covering both the raised folds of the mu-
cous membrane and the intestines between them. These small pit-like
indentations are minute glandular bodies, secreting the gastric juice ; they
commence just below the cardiac orifice of the stomach, and are conti-
nuous to the entrance of the biliary ducts. While every part of this
portion of the intestine is supplied with these crypts, of course they
are most numerous when the mucous membrane is thrown into a series
of folds ; this occurs in the secondary stomachal portion alluded to, which,
in every anatomical particular, is a miniature of the larger one.

The mucous surface of the small intestine becomes much smoother
after it has received the contents of the liver. But in no one spot
throughout its length do we find it absolutely smooth ; it is always ar-
ranged, more or less, in a series of delicate, longitudinal folds ; and, as we
approach the rectal portion, these folds assume a slightly twisted ap-
pearance, but not at all distinct enough to be alluded to as a spiral
valve. When the small intestine joins the large rectal cavity, the gut,
as above-said, contracts very much, and the mucous membrane is packed
up into two or three little eminences, which act the part of a valve. In
the rectal portion, the lining membrane is thin, and very smooth. In
this, as well as in its large diameter, in comparison with the small in-
testine, it remarkably resembles the same parts in the Tritons and Sala-
manders.

Prom a survey of the details thus glanced at, it will be seen that
there is nothing in the alimentary canal of the axolotl to predicate of it
that it is a larval form ; though it may resemble the same parts in
an adult Salamander and Triton, yet it differs from these more than
was at first thought, and more than one would imagine from the only
account that I have found attainable, namely, that of Baron Cuvier.
The osseous system has been too well described by Cuvier, and the repro-
ductive by the paper and illustrations of Sir Everard Home, to need
further allusion to at my hand.

WRIGHT ON THE AXOLOTL. 65

At the conclusion of my observations on the alimentary canal of the
axolotl, I received a copy of Professor Luigi Calori's paper, entitled
" Sulla Anatomia dell' Axolotl," published in the memoirs of the Aca-
demy of Science, Bologna.* This elaborate paper leaves but little to
be said in addition on the anatomy of this animal ; and yet, perhaps, the
publications of this Academy — highly valuable though they be — maybe
as little accessible in Britain as those of our own Royal Society appeal*
to be in Italy. Were the latter otherwise, Dr. Calori would have known of
the paper of Sir Everard Home, referred to by us, " On the Reproductive
Organs of Axolotl, ' ' and not have claimed priority for his discovery and very
careful details of these same structures, so unaccountably passed over by
Cuvier. This thought, and the fact that, though Dr. Calori's paper is
illustrated with five plates, not one represents the viscera in situ — nor
is there a correct representation of the spleen, or of the gall-bladder —
makes us not hesitate to give the result, as detailed in the previous paper,
of the dissections of two fine specimens, male and female, of the axolotl
(for which we are indebted to the kindness of Dr. Dickie, late Profes-
sor of Natural History, Queen's College, Belfast, now of Botany, at Aber-
deen) ; while, in justice to the important paper in the Bologna memoirs,
we now append a brief abstract of the portions that more especially treat
of the alimentary tract. The osseous and blood system are equally pains-
takingly investigated ; but for these we will refer to the work itself: —

"The interior of the stomach is lined with a dry scaly epidermoidal-like stratum, which
is also met with in the pharynx and oesophagus, — a net-like structure, with wide meshes,
occurs, seemingly depending from the blood-vessels. In these meshes are a large number
of small, regularly disposed cells, probably a smaller vascular net-work, not easily per-
ceived without the assistance of high powers. Within the meshes of this smaller net, the
(mucous) glands of the stomach open, — they are very numerous, tubular, and quite micro-
scopic, f

" The muscular coating of the stomach is rather thin, composed of longitudinal fibres,
and is continuous with the muscular coats of the oesophagus, and likewise of the intes-
tinal tract. The transverse fibres are more abundant towards the pyloric orifice, and here
the coats of the intestine are somewhat thicker; there is no lack of an intermediate cellular
membrane between the muscular and mucous coats, but it is very thin.

" The serous investment is very thin, and, having enveloped both sides of the sto-
mach, it is prolonged into two folds: one, the right and lower, going to the liver, forms
the gastro-hepatic ligament : the other, the left and higher, goes to the spleen, not placed
as Cuvier thinks, in the centre of the mesentery, but against the left side of the stomach.

" The oesophageal orifice is larger than the pyloric one ; this latter is very narrow, is
slightly twisted, and a series of folds in the lining membrane almost completely closes it.
These folds are prolonged into the first portion of the small intestine. These folds in the
pyloric orifice take the place of a valve ; it is externally marked by a constriction, in-
ferior to which the duodenum commences ; this is at first very narrow, and descends in

* Memoire dell' Accademia delle Scienze dell' Instituto di Bologna. Tomo iii. 1851,
pp. 269-361.

t It will be seen by reference to our remarks on the internal structure of the stomach,
that Dr. Calori has not rightly comprehended this portion, but his specimen was a very
young one: contrast his fig. 9, plate XXIII., with ours, fig. 4. plate II. The general
outline of this viscus is likewise very much exagerated in fig. 8a, x., Plate XXIII., of
Calori.

VOL. I. N. H. R. K

66 ORIGINAL ARTICLES.

the same general direction as the stomach, it next crosses from left to right, twisting
slightly; it then enlarges, and reaches the liver, with which it becomes united by a fold of
the peritoneum ; receiving the con tents of the biliary ducts, it bends downwards towards the
right side, — is prolonged into the small intestine, which, preforming some convolutions,
ends in the large rectal portion almost by intussusception. The rectum is twice as wide
as the small intestine, but short and straight, ending in the cloaca, open externally
through a longitudinal fissure with swollen lips.*

" The intestines are, for the most part, membranous; the first portion of the duodenum
has, however, very thick coats, and internally has longitudinal plaiting, which occupies
almost all its cavity ; ia this it repeats the arrangement of the mucous membrane of the
oesophagus. This disposition of the fibres leads me to suppose that this part of the intes-
tine has the powTer of enlarging itself ; between these folds there appears a glandulous
net-like structure, without doubt of great importance in digestion ; this is also observed
in the Salamanders.f

" In the small intestine, we find a few longitudinal plaits : but these are scarcely
visible, and disappear as the intestine approaches the rectum ; there is, also, a very
minute net-like vascular structure, visible to the microscope. Meckel says, there is
some villosity present in the small intestine of Salamanders; but in Axolotl, at least, I
could find nothing of the kind. No valve intervenes between the small intestine and
rectum, — this latter does not exhibit any longitudinal foldings, unless indeed in its lower
extremity, close to the external orifice of the cloaca, where many are seen rising like
crests ; there are here, besides, four little bodies, like carunculae. In this cloaca open
the urinary and genital organs, and the bladcler,J not much developed ; however, the
small intestine, equally with the rectum, is furnished with a fine stratum of longitudinal
and transverse fibres, but very delicate and microscopic, and is attached to the vertebral
column by a thin band of mesentery.

" Salivary glands are totally wanting ; there also seems to be a total absence of pan-
creas, but this gland is wanting in other Saurobatrachii — in Hypochthon, for example;
when existing, it is usually very small, and quite rudimentary. Cuvierdoes not refer to
its existence. The spleen is found; its position I have already alluded to; it is four times
as broad as it is thick : it ends in an obtuse point at both extremities. I found it full
of rather conspicuous corpuscles, and of black pigment.

" The liver is rectangular, of a yellowish-red colour, with man}'" black spots ; its under
surface is convex, its upper, concave : the first is connected by the falciform ligament to
about the anterior half of the middle line of the lower soft coats of the abdomen, and
is divided by it into two unequal portions — these form the two lobes of the liver, the
right being the larger. On the under surface, the same division is made, here in a notch
extending inwards through about four-fifths of the substance of the liver, enters the um-
bilical vein, also the biliary ducts and the blood-vessels of the portal system.

" The thin border of the right lobe is notched to receive the small biliary bladder,
which, being inflated with air, rises up from the posterior hepatic border, of which it is
free. Cuvier says, in the text of his paper, that he was not able to see it ; but in the
plate accompanying it, it is delineated, though confusedly and incorrectly. It is pyri-
form, but there is nothing remarkable in its structure ; it empties itself, with the bile ducts,
united to it, into the duodenum, not far from where the latter is attached to the liver."

* The external appearance of this fissure differs much in the two sexes — in the male
it is, as described by Calori, with swollen and corrugated lips: in the female the orifice
is simple, as in many of the Amphibia.

f We think many portions of the intestinal tract act the part of a kind of secondary
stomach. In the Salamanders, as in Triton, we have found, even below the liver por-
tion of the duodenum, widenings of the intestine, to all appearance having the function
of second stomachs ; perhaps this portion might be regarded as an additional stomach,
regarding as duodenum that po-tion only where it is continuous from it to the liver.

J In the plate the bladder is represented so as to lead one to suppose it is on the right
side; its right position is, as figured by Home, towards the left; its shape varies some-
what in different specimens.

HUXLEY OX THE RELATIONS OF MAX TO THE LOWER ANIMALS. 67

Such are the more salient points of Dr. Calori's paper, a translation
of which I have thought it better to lay before the reader. There re-
mains no longer any necessity to discuss the question whether this am-
phibia is a larval form ; but still there is much to be done in reference to
its organs of respiration in its early life. From finding the lungs in
the young axolotl in a complete state of acatylectesis, while the tissue is
be; utifully developed in those of adult form, I am led to believe that
branchial respiration is that of youug life, while the older animal be-
comes as equally dependent for respiration on its lungs.

IX. — On the Zoological Relations of Man w^ith the Lower
Animals. By Professor Huxley, F. R. S.

As the biological sciences have grown in breadth and in depth, and as
successive generations of naturalists have succeeded in penetrating fur-
ther and further into the arcana of nature, the questions — In what re-
lation does the thinker and investigator stand to the objects of his inqui-
ries ? What is the tie which connects man with other animated and
sentient beings ? — have more and more forcibly pressed for a reply.

jlSTor have responses been wanting; but, unfortunately, they have
been diametrically opposed to one another. Theologians and moralists,
historians and poets, impressed by a sense of the infinite responsibilities
of mankind, awed by a just prevision of the great destinies in store for
the only earthly being of practically unlimited powers, or touched by
the tragic dignity of the ever-recurring struggle of human will with cir-
cumstance, have always tended to conceive of their kind as something
apart, separated by a great and impassable barrier, from the rest of the
natural world.

On the other hand, the students of physical science, discovering as
complete a system of law and order in the microcosm as in the macro-
cosm, incessantly lighting upon new analogies and new identities be-
tween life as manifested by man, and life in other shapes, — have no less
steadily gravitated towards the opposite opinion, and, as knowledge has
advanced, have more. and more distinctly admitted the closeness of the
bond which unites man with his humbler fellows.

A controversy has raged between these opposed schools, and, as
usual, passion and prejudice have conferred upon the battle far more
importance than, as it seems to me, can rationally attach to its issue.
For whether, as some think, man is, by" his origin, distinct from all
other living beings, or whether, on the other hand, as others suppose,
he is the result of the modification of some other mammal, his duties
and his aspirations must, I apprehend, remain the same. The proof of
his claim to independent parentage will not change the brutishness of
man's lower nature ; nor, except to those valet souls who cannot see
greatness in their fellow because his father was a cobbler, will the de-
monstration of a pithecoid pedigree one whit diminish man's divine

68 ORIGINAL ARTICLES.

right of kingship over nature ; nor lower the great and princely dignity
of perfect manhood, which is an order of nobility, not inherited, but
to be won by each of us, so far as he consciously seeks good and avoids
evil, and puts the faculties with which he is endowed to their fittest
use.

Important or unimportant in its final results as it may be, however,
there can be no doubt that the controversy as to the real position of man
still exists ; and I have therefore thought that it would be useful to
contribute my mite towards the enrichment of the armoury upon which
both sides must, in the long run, be dependent for their weapons, by
endeavouring to arrange and put in order the facts of the case, so far
as they consist of the only matters of which the anatomist and physio-
logist can take cognizance — I mean facts of discernible structure and of
demonstrable function. If any one assert that there are other orders
of facts which enter into this question, but which are distinguished by
being neither demonstrable nor discernible, all that can be replied is,
that science is incompetent either to affirm or deny his proposition, con-
fined, as she is, to the humble, if safe, region of observation and of
logic.

No one denies, I believe, that there are multitudes of analogies and
affinities of structure and function connecting man with other living-
beings. Man takes his origin in an ovum similar in form, in size, and
in structure to that whence the dog or the rabbit arise. The physical
process which determines the development of the embryo within that
ovum ; the successive stages of that development ; the mode in which
the human foetus is nourished within the maternal organism ; the pro-
cess of birth ; the means provided by nature for the due supply of nu-
triment after birth : are essentially alike in all three cases. Compare
the bony frame-work, the muscles, the great vessels, the viscera, of man,
the dog, and the rabbit, and the demonstration of a pervading unity of
plan in all three is one of the triumphs of modern science.

The most certain propositions entertained by the human physiolo-
gist, those upon which the scientific practice of the healing art depends,
are largely, or wholly, based on the results of experiments on animals.
The poison which hurts them does not leave us unscathed; and we share
with them two of the most terrible diseases with,. which mortal beings
are afflicted, glanders and hydrophobia. Nor can any impartial judge
doubt that the roots, as it were, of those great faculties which confer on
man his immeasurable superiority above all other animate things, are
traceable far down into the animal world. The dog, the cat, and the
parrot return love for our love, and hatred for our hatred. They are ca-
pable of shame and of sorrow ; and though they may have no logic nor
conscious ratiocination, no one who has watched their ways can doubt
that they possess that power of rational cerebration which evolves rea-
sonable acts from the premises furnished by the senses — a process, be it
observed, which takes fully as large a share as conscious reason in hu-
man activity. There is a unity in psychical as in physical plan among
animated beings; and the sense of this unity has been expressed in such

HUXLEY ON THE RELATIONS OF MAX TO THE LOWER ANIMALS. 69

strong terms by Professor Owen, that his words may form a fitting cli-
max to these introductory sentences.

" Not being able to appreciate or conceive of the distinction between the psychical
phenomena of a chimpanzee and of a Boschisman, or of an Aztec, with arrested brain-
growth, as being of a nature so essential as to preclude a comparison between them, or as
being other than a difference of degree, I cannot shut my eyes to the significance of that
all-pervading similitude of structure — every tooth, eveiy bone, strictly homologous —
which makes the determination of the difference between Homo and Pithecus the anato-
mist's difficulty."*

That there are a great number of points of similarity between our-
selves and the lower animals, then, appears to be clearly admitted on
all hands. It is, further, universally allowed that the Yertebrata resemble
man more nearly than do any invertebrates ; that among vertebrates the
Mammalia, and of these the Quadrumana, approach him most closely.
Lastly, I am aware of no dissentient voice to the proposition, that in
the whole, the genera Troglodytes, Pithecus, and Hylolates, make the
closest approximation to the human structure.

The approximation is admitted unanimously ; but unanimity ceases
the moment one asks what is the value of that approximation, if ex-
pressed in the terms by wrhich the relations of the lower animals one to
another are signified. Linnaeus was content to rank man and the apes
in the same order, Primates, ranging in terms of zoological equality,
the genera, Homo, Sima, Lemur, and Vespertilio. Among more mo-
dern zoologists of eminence, Schreber, Goldfuss, Gray, and Myth, have
followed Linnseus, in being unable to see the necessity of distinguishing
man ordinally from the apes.

Blumenbach, and after him, Cuvier, conceived that the possession of
two hands, instead of four, taken together with other distinctive charac-
ters of man, was a sufficient ground for the distinction of the human
family as a distinct order — Bi-mana.

Professor Owen goes a step further, and raises Homo into a sub-
class, " Archencephala" because "his psychological powers, in associa-
tion with his extraordinarily developed brain, entitle the group which
he represents to equivalent rank with the other primary divisions of
the class Mammalia, founded on cerebral characters."!

M. TerresJ vindicates the dignity of man still more strongly, by de-
manding for the human family the rank of a kingdom equal to the Ani-

* Prof. Owen on the Characters, &c, of the Class Mammalia, " Journal of the Pro-
ceedings of the Linnasan Society of London," vol. ii., No. 5, 1857, p. 20, note. It is to
be regretted that this note is omitted in the " Essay on the Classification of the Mamma-
lia," which is otherwise nearly a reprint of this paper. I cannot go so far, however, as to
say, with Prof. Owen, that the determination of the difference between Homo and Pithe-
cus is the 'anatomist's difficulty.'

f Professor Owen on the Characters, &c, of the Class Mammalia, 1. c, p. 33.

% L'homme ne forme ni une espece ni une genre comparable aux Primates. L'homme
a lui seul constitue un regne a part — le Regne humain." — Resume des Lecons sur
TEnibiyologie Anthropologique, Comptes Rendus, 1851.

70 ORIGINAL ARTICLES.

malia or Plan tee ; while, finally, a countryman of our own arrogates to
his fellows so high a place in the aristocracy of nature as to deny that
mankind can be thought of zoologically at all.

From the conception of man as a genus of Primates to the refusal to
conceive of him as a subject of zoological investigation, is a wide range of
opinion — so wide, indeed, as to include all possible views ; for in the pre-
sent state of science, no one is likely to propound the idea that man is
only a species of some genus of ape. Ingenious and learned men have held
all the doctrines which have been mentioned ; great men have held some
of them ; and, therefore, it is more than probable that the question at
issue, if we put the problem in this way, is in reality more one of opinion
as to the right method of classification and the value of the groups which
receive certain names, than one of fact. But, after all, it is the latter
question which really interests science ; and, therefore, it seems to me,
that some service may be done by setting about the inquiry in a different
way — by endeavouring, in fact, to answer the question — What is the
value of the differences observed between man and the lower animals, as
compared with the differences between the lower animals themselves ?
Are the differences between man and the apes, for example, as great as
those between the ape and the fish? or are they rather comparable to
those between the ape and the bird ; or, to take a less range, to those be-
tween the ape and the Marsupial ; or, to occupy a lower stand still, to
those presented by the ape, and, say, the Pachyderm : or, after all, are
the differences no greater than those which obtain between different ge-
nera of the Quadrumana ?

These are questions which can plainly enough be settled indepen-
dently of all theoretical views. Differences of structure can be weighed
by the mind, as definitely as differences of gravity by the balance ; nor
can any dialectic skill refine them away. It will save trouble, if the
attempt be made to answer the last question first — Are the structural diffe-
rences between man and the Quadrumana no greater than those between
the extreme genera of the Qnadrumana ? If, as I shall endeavour to
show, this question can be demonstrably answered in the affirmative ; —
if it can be proved beyond doubt, that whether we consider the skeleton,
the muscles, the brain, or the other viscera, man is far less distant from
Troglodytes or Pithecus, than these apes are from the Lemur, and still
more from the Galeopitheeus or the Cheiromys, the other queries will
need no separate solution. I have hardly any new facts to bring for-
ward, nor any need to advance such. Thanks to the researches of Du-
vernoy, Tiedemann, Isidore St. Hilaire, Schroeder van der Xolk, Vrolik,
Gratiolet, Professor Owen, and others, all the elements of the problem
have long since been determined. It is only necessary to range the ad-
mitted facts side by side, in order to show that there is no escape from
the conclusion.

And, first, with respect to the differential characters presented by the
brains of the chimpanzee and orang from that of man on the one hand,
and those of the lowest quadrumana on the other. I begin with this
question, because it was my misfortune, at the last meeting of the British

HUXLEY ON THE RELATIONS OF MAN TO THE LOWER ANIMALS. 71

Association, to find myself compelled to give a diametrical contradiction
to certain assertions respecting the differences which obtain between the
brains of the higher apes and of man, which fell from Professor Owen ;
and in the interest of science, it is well that the real or apparent opposi-
tion of competent inquirers, as to matters of fact, should be put an end
to as soon as possible, by the refutation of one or the other. Happily, it
is unnecessary that I should trust to my memory of what took place on
the occasion to which I refer; for the assertions alluded to were already
familiar to me, inasmuch as their substance occurs in two of Professor
Owen's latest works — the paper " On the Characters, Principles of Divi-
sion, and Primary Groups of the Class Mammalia," read before the
Linnsean Society on February 17th, and April 21st, 1857; and the essay
" On the Classification of the Mammalia," delivered as a lecture before
the University of Cambridge.

I quote from the former essay, as that intended for an audience of
experts, and hence, in all probability, to be regarded as more strictly
scientific : —

" In man, the brain presents an ascensive step in development, higher and more
strongly marked than that by which the preceding sub-class was distinguished from the
one below it. Not only do the cerebral hemispheres (figs. 5 & 6 A) overlap the olfactory
lobes and cerebellum, but they extend in advance of the one, and further back than the
other (fig. 6, C). Their posterior development is so marked, that anatomists have
assigned to that part the character of a third lobe; it is peculiar to the genus Homo, and
equally peculiar is the posterior horn of the lateral ventricle, and the l hippocampus minor,'
which characterise the hind lobe of each hemisphere. Peculiar mental powers are
associated with this highest form of brain, and their consequences wonderfully illustrate
the value of the cerebral character ; according to my estimate of which I am led to re-
gard the genus Homo as not merely a representative of a distinct order, but of a distinct
sub-class of the Mammalia,* for which I propose the name of '■Archencephala (fig. 6)."

It might be a grave question whether, granting the existence of the
differences assumed to distinguish the human brain, they would justify
the establishment of a sub-class for the genus Homo ; but that difficulty
is not worth discussing, inasmuch as I shall endeavour to demonstrate,
in the course of the following pages, the accuracy of the three counter
statements which I made to the audience assembled in Section D,
viz. : —

1. That the third lobe is neither peculiar to, nor characteristic of
man, seeing that it exists in all the higher Quadrumana.

2. That the posterior cornu of the lateral ventricle is neither pecu-
liar to, nor characteristic of man, inasmuch as it also exists in the higher
Quadrumana.

3. That the Hippocampus minor is neither peculiar to, nor character-
istic of man, as it is found in certain of the higher Quadrumana.

T support the first two propositions by the evidence of every original
observer who has written upon the subject, including Professor Owen

* Here occurs the note which I have already quoted at p. 69. The italics in the
above extract are my own.

•72 ORIGINAL ARTICLES.

himself, and by my own personal observations. The third rests upon
the evidence of Messrs. Schrceder van der Kolk and Yrolik, and of an
eminent countryman of our own, Dr. Allen Thomson, to whom I am
indebted for unpublished observations made with express reference to
these very points.

1. The third lobe or posterior lobe of the cerebrum. — Many ana-
tomists divide the cerebral hemispheres of man into only two lobes, the
anterior and the posterior, separated from one another by the fissure of
Sylvius ; but it is more usual to speak of three lobes, * an anterior, a
middle, and a posterior, the latter, or ' third lobe,' being the posterior,
inasmuch as it consists of the hinder part of that, which those who
divide the cerebral hemispheres into two lobes, call ' posterior.' It is in
this sense that Cuvier, Meckel, and Tiedemann use the term third, or
posterior lobe. It is generally admitted that no very strict line of de-
marcation is traceable between the middle and posterior lobes ; ana-
tomists being content to accept Cuvier' s curt definition : —

" La partie du cerveau situee au-dessus du cervelet est ce qu'on
nomme le lobe posterieur du cerveau. "f

So far as I am aware, the terms " third" or "posterior lobe," have
never been applied in any other senses than those which I have indicated.
Under these circumstances, it is utterly incomprehensible to me how any
one competently informed, either with respect to the literature or to the
facts of the case, can assert that the hind lobe "is peculiar to the genus
Homo ;" for not only will the inspection of any ape's brain convince one
of the contrary, but the facts were originally ascertained and published
by a most competent authority, and have never been doubted for nearly
forty years.

Tiedemann' s " Icones Cerebrorum Simiarum," published in 1821, in
fact, ought to be familiar to every student of mammalian anatomy. On
turning to his first Plate, one finds the first figure to be a representation of
the brain of " Simla nemestrina" The explanation of the figures says : "a,

* It is not a very easy matter to determine with whom these divisions originated.
Vesalius (Humani Corporis Fabrica, libri septem, MDCXLII.) speaks neither of lobes
nor of special ' prominentia?' in the cerebral hemispheres, though he describes them very
accurately, explaining particularly that the under surface of these hemispheres is adapted
to the ' tubera' of the cranial bones.

"Varolius (Anatomise sive de Resolutione Corporis Humani, libri iii., MDXCT. p.
131) says, in his letter to Hieronymus Mercurialis : ' De nervis opticis multisque aliis
praater communem opinionem in humano capito observatis ;'

" Sunt autem tres cerebri prominentia? : anterior, media, et posterior

postrema cerebri prominentia replet cavitatem productam a. superiori parte occipitii a.
posteriori ossis sincipitis et ossis petrosi.'

This looks like the origin of the division into three lobes, while Willis seems to
have originated the division into two.

" Porro in homine cui cerebrum prae ceteris animalibus capax et amplum est, utrum-
que haemisphaerium rursus in duos lobos nempe anteriorem et posteriorem subdividitur:
inter quos arteriae carotidis ramus, utrinque instar rivi limitanei productus eos veluti in
binas provincias distinguit " — Willis, Cerebri Anatome, 1664.

f Lemons d'Anatomie Comparee, 2de ed., tome iii., p. 44.

HUXLEY ON THE RELATIONS OF MAN TO TnE LOWER ANI5TALS. 73

lobus anterior paullulum acuminatus ; b, lobus medius ; c, lobus posterior,
" cerebellum obtegens." Fig. 2, represents the brain of " Simia rhesus-"
and the explanation of the figures says: " a, lobus anterior; b, lobus
medius ; c, lobus posterior." Fig. 3, a figure of the brain of Simia sabcea,
and fig. 4, of " Simia capucina" have the same lettering, and the letters
have the same signification.

And, to permit of no mistake, Tiedemann, at page 48 of the same
work, tells us expressly : —

" Cerebrum simiarum quoad magnitudinem et divisionem in lobos ad humanum
proxime accedit:"dividiturenim perfissurara mediara longituoinalemin duoaequalia hemis-
phoeria quorum utrumque rursus in tres lobos partitvr. Lobi posteriores uti in hoviine
faciem superiorem cerebelli obtegunt. In ceteris a nobis dissectis quodrupedibus ence-
pbali hemisphaeria sunt magis plana et brevia. Lobi posteriores quamvis breviores quam
in Simiis tantommodo in Phoca occurrunt, in reliquis Feris in Leone, Fele, Nasua,
Lotore, et ipso Lemure ac Bradypode cerebellum fere nudum vel ab hemisphseriis haud ob-
tectum conspicitnr."

In 1825, Tiedemann, describing the brain of the orang (Hirn des
Orangs mit dem des Menschen verglichen), particularly states that each
hemisphere is, as in man, divided into three lobes — an anterior, a middle,
and a posterior ; and that the ovate cerebral hemispheres cover the cere-
bellum almost entirely, though they do not, as in man, project beyond
its posterior margin.

In the third volume of the second edition of the " Lecons," Cuvier
expressly affirms, in speaking of the apes : —

" Their hemispheres are also prolonged back wards, "as in man, to form the posterior
lobes, which repose on the cerebellum.

"The cerebellum is almost wholly covered by the hemispheres in the seal and otter.
" In the dolphin, a large proportion of the cerebellum is covered." — pp. 84-8G.

And, in the " Eegne Animal," he gives as part of the definition of the
order Quadrumana : " Le cerveau a trois lobes de chaque cote, dont le
posterieur recouvre le cervelet."

In his elaborate essay " On the brain of the negro, compared with
that of the European and the orang outang," published in the Philo-
sopical Transactions for 1838, TiedemannsVzeal for the cause of the
oppressed black has occasionally led him into something very like special
pleading; and yet he does not dream of hinting the absence of the poste-
rior, or third lobe, present in the negro's brain, from that of the orang.
His summary, at p. 518, runs thus : —

" The brain of the monkey and the orang outang differs, as follows, from the human
brain : —

" 1. The brain is absolutely and relatively smaller and lighter, shorter, narrower,
and lower than the human brain.

" 2. The brain is smaller, in comparison to the size of the nerves, than in man.

" 3. The hemispheres of the brain are, relatively to the spinal marrow, medulla ob-
longata, the cerebellum, corpora quadrigemina, the thalami optici, and corpora striata,
smaller than in man.

" 4. The gyri and sulci of the brain are not so numerous as in man."
VOL. I N. H. R. L

74 ORIGINAL ARTICLES.

I do not think that any valid objections can be raised as to the ac-
curacy of the statements already cited ; but in case such should be brought
forward, I will now produce one authority which I am sure Pro-
fessor Owen will regard as irrefragable. This is the third volume of the
Catalogue of the Hunterian Collection, where, at p. 34, 1 find the follow-
ing passages : —

" 1338. The brain of a baboon (Papio mormon, Cuv.) The cerebral hemispheres are of
greater proportionate size than in any of the preceding specimens, and they are developed
so far backwards as to cover the cerebellum. The posterior lobes exhibit anfractuosities
characteristic of the brain in the higher simiae, as the baboons and orangs.

"1338a. The brain of a chimpanzee (Simia troglodytes, Linn.) This brain, in the
relative proportions of the different parts, and the disposition of the convolutions, espe-
cially those of the posterior lobes, approaches nearest to the human brain. It differs
chiefly in the flatness of the hemispheres, in the comparative shortness of the posterior,
and the narrowness of the anterior lobes."

In the year 1842, Dr. Macartney read a paper "On the Minute
Structure of the Brain of the Chimpanzee, and of the Human Idiot,
compared with the perfect Brain of Man," before the Royal Irish Aca-
demy ; and the essay, accompanied by two plates, is published in the 1 9th
volume of the Transactions of that Academy. At p. 323, Dr. Macartney
says — " The proportions of the cerebellum to the cerebrum were exactly
as in man." "The parts in the lateral ventricles corresponded very nearly
with the same in man." The figure of the upper surface of a plaster
cast of the brain of this Chimpanzee, in Plate I., distinctly exhibits the
posterior cerebral lobes projecting beyond the cerebellum.

The " Yerhandelingen over de Natuuiiijke Geschiedenis der Neder-
landsche overseesche Bezittingen," pp. 39-44, contains a valuable me-
moir,*4 by Dr. Sandifort, on the anatomy of the orang, in which, at p.
30, I find the following distinct statement : —

" The base of the brain is divided into three lobes (lobi), of which the most anterior
is short ; the middle one descends remarkably below the foremost and hindmost ; while
the hindermost not only covers the cerebellum, but extends still further backwards than
it. In vertical sections of the skulls of full-grown specimens, the bony frame- work showed
that such is always the case, so the cerebral lobes appear to extend more backward over
the cerebellum as age advances. In the brain investigated by Tiedemann, which belonged
to a young orang, the cerebral lobes covered the cerebellum, but did not extend further
back than it."

Yrolik, in the valuable article, " Quadrumana," contributed by him
to "Todd's Cyclopaedia" (1847), expressly affirms (p. 207), that, in the
orang, the cerebral hemispheres " are protracted behind the cerebellum."
And M. Isidore Geoffroy S. Hilaire (" Seeonde Memoire sur les Singes
Americanes," Archives du Museum, 1844) draws particular attention to
the fact, that in the Saimiri, Chrysothrix (Saimiris, I. G. St. H.) ustus,
a platyrhine monkey, and therefore far more distant from man than the

* " Ontleedkundige Veschouwing van een Volwassen Orang oetan {Simia satyrus,
Linn.), van het Mannelijk Geslacht."

HUXLEY ON THE EELATIONS OF MAN TO THE LOWER ANIMALS. 75

tailless catarrhine apes of the old world, the cerebral hemispheres project
for back beyond the cerebellum, though the latter is very well developed
—in fact, as the cerebral hemispheres project nearly a centimetre behind
the cerebellum, while the whole brain is only 5J centimetres long, the
backward projection of the third lobe is, in this monkey, relatively
greater than in man.

The "Transactions of the Koyal Netherlands Institute at Amster-
dam for 1849" contain one of the most valuable memoirs on the cerebral
organization of the higher apes that has yet been written, entitled, "An
Anatomical Investigation of the Brain of the Chimpanzee," by Schroeder
van der Kolk and Yrolik. In their two plates they represent the brains
of a chimpanzee, an orang, and a new-born child, and, in all, the letter
c is applied to the same part — the posterior or third lobe, which they
term " achterhoofds-kwab," " occipital lobe," in the explanation of the
plates, or frequently in the text, "achter-kwab," "posterior lobe" ; nor
among the heads of their careful enumeration of the differences between
the brain of man and the higher apes does any one of the three differ-
ential characters whose existence I have denied find a place.

Finally, in the preface to the most elaborate special memoir that has
yet appeared upon the conformation of the brain in the higher Mam-
malia— the " Memoire sur les plis Cerebraux de 1' Homme et des Pri-
mates," by M. P. Gratiolet, — I find the following passage (p. 2) : —

''The convoluted brain of man and the smooth brain of the marmoset resemble one
another in the fourfold character of a rudimentary olfactory lobe, a posterior lobe, which
completely covers the cerebellum, a well-marked fissure of Sylvius, and lastly, a posterior
cornu to the lateral ventricle. These characters are met with in combination only in
man and in the apes."

M. Gratiolet' s beautiful original figures of the brain of the chimpan-
zee (PL vi), and of the orang (PL vii), show quite clearly that the
hinder margin of the cerebral lobes in these animals; when the brain is
in its natural condition, overlaps the hinder margin of the cerebel-
lum.

Many months ago, having learned that my friend Dr. Allen Thomson
had at one time occupied himself with the dissection of the brain of the
chimpanzee, I applied to him for information, and he has very kindly
allowed me to print the following extracts from his letters. Of the first
brain he examined — that of a young female chimpanzee, seven or eight
months old, — this eminently careful anatomist and physiologist says
(under date of May 24, I860) : —

"There is, very clearly, a posterior lobe, separated from the middle one by as deep a
groove between the convolutions on the inner side of the hemispheres, as in man, and
equally well marked off on the other side. I should be inclined to say, that the posterior
lobe is little inferior to that of man, excepting, perhaps, in vertical depth. The cerebral
hemispheres completely covered the cerebellum, as seen from above. I took pains to
observe this while the brain was still within the cranium, looking down upon it at right
angles to the longtitudinal axis of the cranial cavity, and I found the posterior extremity
of the cerebral hemispheres projected a little beyond the vertical Hue, passing the back
of the cerebellum."

76 ORIGINAL ARTICLES.

Thus, every original authority testifies that the presence of a third
lobe in the cerebral hemisphere is not " peculiar to the genus Homo,"
but that the same structure is discoverable in all the true Simiae among
the Quadrumana, and is even observable in some lower Mammalia ; and
any one who chooses to take the trouble to dissect a monkey's brain, 01;
even to examine a vertically bisected skull of any of the true Simise,
may convince himself, on the still better authority of nature, not only
that the third lobe exists, but that it extends to the posterior edge of, if
not behind the cerebellum.

2. The posterior cornu. — In the " Icones," already referred to, Tiede-
mann not only described but figured the posterior cornu of the lateral
ventricle in the Simia (Tab. 2°, Fig. 3a), as " e. scrobiculus parvus loco
cornu posterioris ;" and when giving an account of the brain of the seal
(Tab. 3a), he says: " e. cornu descendens s. medium. Prseterea cornu
posterioris vestigium occurrit."

Tiedemann's statements are confirmed by every authoritative writer
since his time. According to Cuvier* (Lecons, T. iii., p. 103), " the an-
terior or lateral ventricles possess a digital cavity [posterior cornu] only in
man and the apes. This part exists in no other mammifer. Its presence
depends on that of the posterior lobes. In the seals and dolphins alone,
in which the posterior part of the hemisphere is considerable, the lateral
ventricle, at the point where it descends into the temporal tuberosity,
bends a little backwards, thus exhibiting a sort of vestige of the digital
cavity of the human brain. "

Yrolik (Art. Quadrumana, Todd's Cyclopaedia), though he carefully
enumerates the differences observable between the brains of the Quadru-
mana and that of man, does not think of asserting the absence of the
posterior cornu. And lastly, Schroeder van der Kolk and Vrolik (op.
cit., p. 271), though they particularly note that "the lateral ventricle
is distinguished from that of man by the very defective proportions of
the posterior cornu, wherein only a stripe is visible as an indication of
the hippocampus minor;" yet the figure 4 in their second Plate shows
that this posterior cornu is a perfectly distinct and unmistakeable struc-
ture, quite as large as it often is in man. It is the more remarkable
that Professor Owen should have overlooked the explicit statement and
figure of these authors, as it is quite obvious, on comparison of the
figures, that his wood-cut of the brain of a Chimpanzee (1. c, p. 19), is
a reduced copy of the second figure of Messrs. Schroeder van der Kolk
and Vrolik' s first Plate.

As M. Gratiolet (1. c, p. 18), however, is careful to remark, " unfor-
tunately the brain which they have taken as a model was greatly altered
(profondement affraisse), whence the general form of the brain is given
in these plates in a manner which is altogether incorrect." Indeed, it
is perfectly obvious, from a comparison of a section of the skull of the
Chimpanzee with these figures, that such is the case ; and it is greatly to

Leuret, Longet, and Stannius, agree with or, perhaps, only repeat Cuvier.

HUXLEY OX THE RELATIONS OF MAX TO THE LOWER ANIMALS. 77

be regretted that so inadequate a figure should have been taken as a
typical representation of the Chimpanzee's brain.

3. The Hippocampus minor. — But even supposing that the posterior
cornu of the lateral ventricle and its appendage, the hippocampus minor,
were absent in the apes, and " peculiar to the genus Homo," what
classificatory value would the distinction possess ? This, of course, de-
pends upon the constancy of the supposed distinctive character ; but it
so happens that, as every anatomist knows, the posterior cornu and the
hippocampus minor, are precisely those structures which are most va-
riable in the human brain. This is by no means a novel discovery. The
work of the brothers Wenzel* has now been published nearly half a
century, and it contains (pp. 144-146) the following account of the
special researches of these observers on the posterior cornu and the hip-
pocampus, which they call simply " Tuber" : —

" Tuber in cornu posterior ■<? ventriculorum lateralium : — Non semper plerumque tamen
aclest, et quidera utroque in latere sive in utroque cornu. Inter quinquaginta et unum,
eo specialiter fine a nobis examinata cerebra diversa? omnino aetatis atque utriusque sexus,
tria tantum reperiebamus in quibus tuber iilud in utroque latere et duo in quibus uno in
latere desiderabatur. Quam constans autem, in universum tuberis istius prsesentia, tam
varans est magnitudo illius, non in diversis tantum subjectis, sed etiam in uno eodemque
absque omni prorsus et aatatis et sexus discrimine. Qnandoque admodum longum, inter-
dum latum nonnunquam valde angustum est. Magnitudo illius in universum spectata,
sequitur magnitudinem posterioris cornu ventriculorum lateralium : hsec quam maxime
diversa est, quin et in uno eodemque cerebro et utroque latere. Qnandoque enim cornu
istud fere usque ad posteriorem cerebri marginem pertingit, ssepe terminus prope initium
est, Sfepe contingit ut in minore cornu magis, in majore minus sit tuber, id quoque eodem
nonnunquam in cerebro evidentissime animadvertitur. Rarius in boc tubere est quod
sictit hippocampus ad finem suum crenas sive sulcos habeat quod superficies ejus duo in
tubera superius atque inferius, divisa sit ; plerumque autem in medio latissimum est et
crassissimum. in terminis angustius: sed et hoc quoque varium est.

" Situs illius atque interior structura semper sunt eadem. Semper juxta interius latus
cornu videtur, ideoque superficiei cerebri prope adjaeet, idque cum interiore ejusdem
structura cohoeret, quae, ut sectio in transversum ducta clare demonstrat, eadem omnino
est ac in gyris cerebri. Constat videlicet ex interiore in laterales ventriculos continuato,
sive prolongato pariete cujus gyri in superficie cerebri siti, qui inflectitur, ac deinde in-
terior! de parte exteriorem versus ad superficiem cerebri rediens in alium gyrum transit.
Paries ist intra cornu medullosa, quoe cornu ipsurn vestit, lamina obducitur; paries ipse
autem ex cinerea, in ambitu cerebri sita, ubique conspieua substantia constat, quas hoc
loco neque latior est, neque alium colorem exhibet ac in quovis alio cerebri gyro.

"Inter utrumque tuberis parietem spatium invenitur, quod vasculosa cerebri reque
explet ac sulcum inter duos alios gyras in superficie cerebri sitas.

" Si in superficie cerebri eo, qui eminentise isti opponitur loco membrana cerebri media
et interior detrahitur, tuber illud evanescit, ut quamprimum cerebri superficies extenditur,
in planum mutatur.

" Discrimen ergo, hoc tuber inter et processum cerebri lateralem in eo consistit, quod
illud verum absolutum, gyris in exteriors cerebri superricie sitis omino simile, quoad in-
teriorem vero structuram plane aequale, in interiore cerebro sive in aliqua ventriculorum
ejusdam parte existens gyrus sit ; quod e contrario hippocampus, si cum gyris in super-
ficie cerebri existentibus comparatur, tantummodo gyri alicujus pars, non autem abso-
lutus atque integer gyrus sit, cujus initium in interiore cerebro, aut in aliqua ventricu-
lorum parte existit."

* Jos. et Car. Wenzel, " De penitiori structura Cerebri Hominis et Brutorum.
Tubings, mdcccxii.

78 ORIGINAL ARTICLES.

The brothers Wenzel figure in their excellent plates the various con-
ditions of the posterior cornu and hippocampus minor to which they refer;
and it is remarkable that the brain which they have selected as exem-
plifying the absence of the hippocampus minor on both sides, Tab. v.,
Fig. 1, is said to be "ex triginta annorum sethiope," while the most re~
markably developed hippocampus, Tab. vii., Pig. 3, is "ex septem
annorum puero."

The work whence these extracts are taken is contained in the libraries
both of the College of Surgeons and of the Eoyal Society; but, even if it
were inaccessible, a well-known and more modern writer fully bears out
the doctrine it contains. I refer to Longet,** who states that, in the
human brain, w the posterior cornu is found of very different lengths and
breadths. I have found brains in which it extended up to within a few
millimetres of the surface of the posterior lobe, and others in which it
ended at more than three centimetres therefrom."

The same excellent authority, in describing the posterior cornu of the
lateral ventricle, says :—

"Its inner and lower wall is raised by a convolution which forms a more or less
distinct, and at times, double projection into the cavity itself. This projection (Hippo-
campus minor, eminentia unciformis, calliculus, unguis, calcar avis) was well described
by Morand, and after him was called the ' Spur of Morand' — 'Ergot de Morand.'

" The Hippocampus minor exhibits differences in its form and circumference, as
Greding has stated ; usually it is bent on itself, arched forwards and outwards, some-
times narrow and long, sometimes broader. Very frequently it is smooth, at other times
it exhibits many fissures and small enlargements, especially posteriorly ; or it may be
divided by a longitudinal cleft into two halves, the upper of which is almost always
larger than the lower. Its dimensions are by no means directly proportional to the de-
velopment of the posterior lobe. In the same subject it may be very distinct upon the
one side, and yet be hardly perceptible upon the other. For the rest I can certify that, in
spite of Meckel'sf assertion to the contrary, it is not always present. My own observations
agree with those of Wenzel, who, among fifty-one subjects that he examined with express
reference to this point, found three in which the hippocampus was absent upon both
sides, and two in which every trace of it was absent upon one side only."

To allow a structural character totally absent in six per cent, of the
members of any group to stand as part of the definition of that group,
considered as a sub-class, would be a very hazardous proceeding. But,
is it true that the hippocampus minor is altogether absent in the highest
apes ? I suspect that Tiedemann is responsible for the not unfrequently
admitted doctrine that it is; for, in the " Icones" he writes : —

" Pedes hippocampi minores vel ungues, vel calcaria avis, quae a posteriore corporis
callosi margine tanquam processus duo medullares proficiscuntur, inque fundo cornu pos-
terioris plicas graciles et retroflexas formant, in cerebro simiarumdesunt ; nee in cerebro
aliorum a me examinatorum mammalium occurrunt. Romini ergo proprii sunt."

* German edition, by Hein, under the title, Anatomie und Physiologie des Nerven-
systems des Menschen und der Wirbelthiere, 1847, Bd. i., p. 463.

f Dr. Hein here adds: "What Meckel says is that he himself never failed to find the
hippocampus minor, but that he by no means wishes to throw doubts on Wenzel's state-
ments ;" and on reference to Meckel's work, I find this to be quite correct.

HUXLEY ON THE RELATIONS OF MAN TO THE LOWER ANIMALS. 79

However, the citation from the Memoir of Schroeder van der Kolk and
Vrolik, given above, proves that in their opinion a rudimentary hippocam-
pus minor does exist in the Chimpanzee, and Dr. Allen Thomson adds his
valuable testimony in a still more decided manner to the same effect.
In the letter which I have already quoted, he says : —

" I found an eminence in the floor of the posterior cornu and towards its inner side,
■which I regarded as the hippocampus minor, and I found it produced exactly in the same
manner as in man, by the bulging into the ventricles of a portion of the brain, by a very
deep groove between the convolutions."

In another letter (the 11th of iSTovember, 1860), replying to further
troublesome inquiries of mine, Dr. Thomson writes : —

u I thought it best for my own satisfaction and yours, to open the lateral ventricle
from above, in a second brain which I possess. This brain, which was extracted from
a young animal in Africa, was placed in rum there, and it was both much discoloured
and not so well preserved as I could have wished. The appearances are, however, suffi-
ciently distinct to enable me to confirm entirely what I think I stated to you before,
viz. : 1. The prolongation of the cavity of the posterior cornu, to a considerable distance be-
yond the plane of the posterior edge of the corpus callosum (which, I presume, may be taken
as the best measure of the position of the parts); and, 2. The existence on the inner side,
and partly in the floor of that posterior cornu, of an eminence corresponding in all re-
spects with the hippocampus minor Just as I was setting about the

examination of this point, I found an opportunity, in my dissecting-room, of looking at
a fresh human brain, and I thought it might be more satisfactory to examine the two
brains together. It so turned out, that the brain I cut in upon presented an example
(not uncommon) of great deficiency in the extent of the posterior cornu. I think it is
worth sending you a sketch of it, for it is really scarcely more developed than that of the
chimpanzee in this respect."

Having now, as I trust, redeemed my pledge to prove that neither
the third lobe of the cerebrum, nor the posterior cornu of the lateral ven-
tricle, nor the hippocampus minor, are structures distinctive of and "pe-
culiar to the genus Homo," I may leave it to the reader to decide the
fate of the " sub-class Archencepliala" founded upon the supposed exis-
tence of these three distinctive characters.

And here I might fairly leave the question ; but, essential as I have
felt it to be to my personal and scientific character to prove that my
public assertions are entirely borne out by facts, I am far from desiring
to deal with this important matter in a merely controversial spirit.
Therefore, although the differences hitherto referred to are certainly non-
existent, I proceed to inquire whether there are any other marked and
constant characters by which the human may be distinguished from the
Simian brain.

Without doubt such characters are to be found; and in all probability,
as in the case of any other two distinct genera, the more carefully and
minutely our inquiries are carried out, the greater will be the number of
these differentiae. So far as my knowledge goes, the most prominent
and important are the following: —

1 . In the anthropoid apes the brain is smaller, as compared with the
nerves which proceed from it, than in man.

80 ORIGINAL ARTICLES.

2. In the anthropoid apes the cerebrum is smaller, relatively to the
cerebellum, than in man.

3. In the anthropoid apes the sulci and gyri are generally less com-
plex, and those of the two cerebral hemispheres are more symmetrical,
than in man.

4. The hemispheres are more rounded and deeper in man than in the
anthropoid apes, and the proportions of the lobes to one another are dif-
ferent. Furthermore, certain minor gyri and fissures, present in the one,
are absent or rudimentary in the other.

The evidence of the first of these differences has, I believe, been uni-
versally admitted since the time of Soemmering. The second and fourth
clearly result from the observations of Schroeder van der Kolk and
Vrolik, and those of Gratiolet (Mem. sur les plis cerebraux des Primates,
1854), as will appear from the following extracts. The first citation is
taken from the work of the first-named authors, which seems to be so
little known in this country, that I make no apology for length of the
extract : —

" According to very precise investigations which the first named of us has carried
out with reference to this point, the difference between the brains of the higher apes and
that of man is to be sought, not only in the smaller size of the hemispheres, but also in a
totally different relation of the lobes. Relatively, the under surface of the first lobe of
the cerebrum, in the chimpanzee, is much larger than in man ; while, on the other hand,
the distance from the most anterior point of the middle lobe to the hindermost point of
the posterior lobe is much smaller. In our chimpanzee the distance from the root of the
olfactory nerve to the anterior margin of the brain is about 44 millimeti-es, from the point
of the middle lobe to the extreme end of the posterior lobe, 69 mm. In the adult man,
according to measurements which the first of us has instituted, and which wholly agree
with those of the ninth plate of Foville, the first named measurement is 57 mm., the
second, 145 mm. In the brain of a new-born child, examined by us, the first dimension
amounted to 33 mm., the second to 70 mm. The length of the base of the anterior lobe
was thus to the distance from the point of the middle lobe to the end of the posterior
lobe, in the chimpanzee, as 1 : 1-52; in the adult man as I : 2-54; in the child, as
1 : 2. Hence it appears that the relative proportions of the lobes of the child's brain hold
just the mean between the chimpanzee and the adult man ; and that in the course of the
growth of the child to manhood, the posterior and middle lobes increase more in length
than the base of the anterior lobe. In the orang, the same proportion obtains as in the
new-born child or 1 : 2, a residt which is certainly remarkable, and proves that, in this
respect, the brain of the orang stands higher than that of the chimpanzee. The second
point to which we would direct attention is, that in comparing the brain of man with
that of animals, and especially in determining in what manner the cerebellum becomes
covered we too exclusively attend to the posterior elongation of the cerebral hemispheres,
while the varying size of the cerebellum itself ought to be taken into account. On com-
paring the perpeudicular section of the brain of the new-born child (pi. ii., fig. 3.) with
fig. 1, the brain of the three-year-old chimpanzee, and with fig. 2, that of the orang of a like
age, it is at once apparent that the cerebellum of the orang, and especially of the chim-
panzee, is much larger than that of the child ; so that, supposing one could place the
cerebellum of the chimpanzee behind the medulla oblongata of the child, it would be even
less covered.

In fact, the distance from the anterior edge of the most anterior part of the cerebellum,
close to the corpora quadrigemina, to its posterior margin, measures, in the chimpanzee,
38 mm. ; in the orang, 35 mm. ; in the child, 22 mm. If we compare the measure-
ments with the whole distance from the anterior to the posterior lobe of the cerebrum, we
obtain, according to measurements taken by the first named of us,—

HUXLEY ON THE RELATIONS OF MAN TO THE LOWER ANIMALS. 81

Chimpanzee, 38 : 101 mm. = 1 : 2-66.

Orang, 35 : 96 = 1 : 2'74.

Human child, 22 : 96 = 1 : 4.36.

Adult man, 50 : 157 = 1 : 3-1.

Hence, it is clear 1°, that the cerebellum in the Chimpanzee and in the Orang are
proportionally larger than in man; 2°, that the Orang in this respect approaches man
more closely than does the Chimpanzee." — " Anatomical Investigation," &c., 1. c. pp.
265-7.

The authors go on to remark that the same large proportion of the
cerebellum to the cerebrum is characteristic of the lower Mammalia, as
Soemmering had already observed, and that, consequently, the uncovered-
ness of the cerebellum arises as much from the disproportionately large
size of the latter, as from the defect of the posterior lobe of the cere-
brum. They further show that the human cerebellum is proportionally
still smaller in a six-months' foetus (1 : 4*7) ; and that, while in the adult
the cerebellum has more than double the size it had in the new-born
child (50 : 22), the cerebrum of the adult is only 1-J times as large
in the adult as in the new-born child (157 : 96). At the same time the
cerebellum attains its full size by the end of the third year — a fact which
indicates very interestingly the relations of the cerebellum with the lo-
comotive power.

M. Gratiolet commences his description of the cerebral convolutions
of man thus : —

" The form of the human brain is well known. Its singular height, the width of the
frontal lobe, whose anterior extremity, instead of narrowing to an acute point, is termi-
nated by a surface whose extent corresponds to that of the frontal bone ; the large angle
which the two orbital fossae form, the depression of the fissure of Sylvius, the richness and
complications of the secondary convolutions, at once distinguish this brain from that of all
the Primates. But these differences, great and characteristic as they may be, yet consist
with the existence of such analogies between the brain of man and that of apes, that the
same general description serves both equally well. There are the same principal divi-
sions, the same lobes, the same convolutions ; all the parts are not the same, but they are
homologous." — L. c, pp. 57, 58.

M. Gratiolet then goes on to point out what the differences of these
homologous parts are ; but I cannot give them in detail here, without
entering upon a full explanation of his terminology, which would occupy
too much space.

There is no lack, then, of real differences enough between the brain
of man and those of the highest Quadrumana, though they are not those
which have been asserted to exist. The question, what is the value of
these differences ? could only be satisfactorily answered, if the extent
of variation exhibited by the brain among the different races of man-
kind had been carefully determined. We are greatly in want of know-
ledge on this important subject ; but what little is known tends distinctly
to the conviction, that no very great value can be set upon these dis-
tinctions, inasmuch as the differences between the brains of the highest
races and those of the lowest, though less in degree, are of the same
order as those which separate the human from the simian brain. I am

vol. i. — N. H. E. M

82 ORIGINAL ARTICLES.

well aware that it is the fashion to say that the brains of all races of
mankind are alike ; but in this, *as in other cases, fashion is not quite
at one with fact.

Soemmering and Tiedemann are directly at variance with respect to
the relative proportions of the size of the nerves to the brain in the
higher and in the lower races of mankind ; and, as respects the relative
proportions of the cerebrum and cerebellum, the ratios deducible from
Tiedemann' s measurements give so small a difference, that though it is
rather in favour of the existence of a larger proportional size of the cere-
bellum in the lower races, I do not think it can be depended upon.

But, with regard to the third especially Simian cerebral character
mentioned above, Tiedemann' s observations (though, as the negro's ad-
vocate, he endeavours to explain them away) are definite, and to the
point: —

" The only similarity between the brain of the negro and that of the orang outang
is, that the gyri and sulci on both hemispheres are more symmetrical than in the brain
of the European. It remains, however, to be proved whether this symmetry is to be
found in all negro brains, which I very much douht." — L. c, p. 519.

One would like to know the ground of Professor Tiedemann's doubts,
because the only other observation he details, bearing on this subject,
leads him to precisely the same conclusion. Thus, at p. 316 of the
same memoir, I find the exi:)ress statement: — " This [symmetry] is
particularly visible in the brain of the Bosjes woman." Indeed, the
fact must at once strike every one conversant with the ordinary appear-
ance of a European brain, who glances at PL xxxiv. of Tiedemann's
Memoir, in which a view of the Bosjesman brain referred to is given.

Fortunately, M. Gratiolet has also particularly described and care-
fully figured this brain (which is that of the " Hottentot Venus;"' who
died in Paris, and had the honour of being anatomized by Cuvier), and
his remarks upon the subject are exceedingly important and instruc-
tive:—

" This woman, be it premised, was no idiot. Nevertheless, it may be observed, that
the convolutions of her brain are relatively very little complicated. But what strikes
one, at once, is the simplicity, the regular arrangement of the two convolutions which com-
pose the superior stage of the frontal lobe. These folds, if those of the two hemispheres
be compared, present, as we have already pointed out, an almost perfect symmetry, such

as is never exhibited by normal brains of the Caucasian race This regularity —

this symmetry, involuntarily recall the regularity and symmetry of the cerebral convolu-
tions in the lower species of animals. There is, in this respect, between the brain of a
white man and that of this Bosjesman woman a difference such that it cannot be mis-
taken ; and if it be constant, as there is every reason to suppose it is, it constitutes one
of the most interesting facts which have yet been noted." — L. c, p. 65.

" The antero-superior curve is less convex than in the white man : lastly, the orbi-
tal fossae are more concave ; and there may be observed at the level of the anterior ex-
tremity of the temporo-sphenoidal lobe, a very marked constriction, which results from
a very remarkable predominance of the supraciliary lobe. This disposition appears to
result from the less development of the superior divisions. The brains of foetuses belong-
ing to the white race present it at the maximum, when the operculum of the fissure of
Sylvius does not yet cover the central lobe ; it is still quite apparent at birth ; but it be-

HUXXET ON THE RELATIONS OF MAN TO THE LOWEB. ANIMALS. 83

conies slowly effaced with age, and in the adult it has completely disappeared. The brain
of the Hottentot Venus is, then, in all respects, inferior to that of white men arrived at the
normal term of their development. It can be compared only with the brain of a white
who is idiotic from an arrest of cerebral development." — p. 66.

Finally, with respect to the fourth difference, Tiedemann observes
(p. 515) of the negro's brain: —

" The anterior part of the hemispheres is something narrower than is usually the case
in Europeans. This is particularly remarkable in the brain of the Bosjes woman."

Thus, the cerebral hemispheres of the Bosjesman (and to a certain
extent of the negro), so far as the evidence before us goes, are diffe-
rent from those of the white man ; and the circumstances in which they
differ — viz., the more pointed shape of the cerebral hemispheres, the
greater symmetry of their convolutions, and the different development
of certain of these convolutions, — are all of the same nature as most of
those which distinguish the ape's brain from that of man. In other words,
if we place A, the European brain, B, the Bosjesman brain, and C, the
orang brain, in a series, the differences between A and B, so far as they
have been ascertained, are of the same nature as the chief of those be-
tween B and C.

The brains of the lowest races of mankind have been hardly at all
examined ; and it would be a matter of great interest to ascertain whe-
ther, in these races, there is any trace of the external perpendicular
fissure, any diminution of the lobule of the marginal convolution, and
any increase of the proportional size of the nerves to the cerebral mass.
Medical men living at the Cape of Good Hope, in Australia, and within
reach of the Hill-men of India, will, it is to be hoped, some day solve
these problems for the zoologist.

Let it be admitted, however, that the brain of man is absolutely
distinguished from that of the highest known apes — ■■

1st. By its large size, as compared with the cerebral nerves ;

2nd. By the existence of the lobule of the marginal convolution ;*

3rd. By the absence of the external perpendicular fissure —
And then let us turn to the other side of the argument, and weigh
these differences against those which separate the brains of PWiecus or
Troglodytes from those of the lowest Quadrumana.

The brain of Lemur mongos is well figured, and constantly referred
to by Tiedemann in the " Icones" so often referred to. The few gyri ;
the shortness of the cerebral hemispheres, in the region of the third
lobe, which leave fully half the cerebellum uncovered ; the large size
of the vermis superior ; the prominence of its flocculus ; the great size
of the olfactory nerves, which rather deserve the name of olfactory
lobes ; the singleness of the corpora candicantia ; the comparatively
small and flat pons varolii ; the presence of corpora trapezoidea ; and, in

* The second and third differences are mentioned by Gratiolet, to whose Memoir I
must refer for a statement of their nature.

84 ORIGINAL AUTICLES.

the internal structure of the brain, the large size of the optic thalami in
relation to the corpora striata, and the total absence of a posterior cornu
to the lateral ventricle* — are all characters which are perfectly obvious,
and which separate the brain of the Lemur as completely from that of
Pithecus or Troglodytes, as from that of man.

The description of the brain of Stenops tardigradus, by Yrolik, tells
the same story even more strikingly ; and the brains of Perodicticus and
other Prosimiae, exhibited in the Hunterian Museum, fully bear out the
conclusion, that the vast differences noted obtain throughout the Prosi-
mian division of the Quadrumana.

M. Gratiolet, in fact, has been so struck by the immense discrepancy
between the Simiae and Prosimiae in cerebral structure, that he proposes
to consider the latter as forming a part of the order Insectivora. In this
view he is at variance with all the other zoologists ; but, in order to meet
all possible objections, I will, for the moment, suppose that he is right,
and that the order Quadrumana should be restricted to the Simiae. Even
on this supposition, the force of my argument remains unchanged ; for
the brains of the lower true apes and monkeys differ far more widely
from the brain of the orang than the brain of the orang differs from that
of man. Not only do they differ from the orang (and to a greater de-
gree) in most of those respects in which the orang differs from man, but
they present the absolute distinction, that while the orang, like man,
has two corpora candicantia, the lower apes, like the other Mammalia,
have only one.

In respect of their cerebral characters, therefore, I hold it to be de-
monstrable that the Quadrumana differ less from man than they do from
one another; and that, hence, the separation of Homo and Pithecus in
distinct sub-classes, while Pithecus and Cynocephalus are retained in
one order, is utterly inconsistent with the principle of any classification
of the Mammalia by cerebral characters.

On a future occasion I propose to take up the question, whether, on
other grounds, there is any reason for departing from the Linnean view,
that man is to be regarded as a genus of the same order as that which
contains the Quadrumana.

* " Cornu posterius in Simiis et Phocis brevissimum et vix conspicuum est : in ce-
teris mammalibus plane desideratur."— Icones, p. 54.

( 85 )

§M0grapfjg,

[In commencing the Bibliographical Record, it has been thought advisable
to begin with the year 1860. With respect to works dated prior to that
period, the Bibliographia Zoologies et Geologies of the Ray Society, which
comes down to 1847-54, and the very valuable Bibliographia Zoologies
of Professor V. Cams and "W. Engelmann, of which the first volume has
just appeared, which is brought down to the end of 1859, will, as re-
gards Zoology at least, afford the required information.

In future, it is intended to supply the Bibliography of a single quar-
ter only in each Number of the Review ; but on the present occasion, as
the greater part of a year is embraced, the quantity of materials has been
found too large to admit of the insertion of the whole. A portion only,
therefore, is now given, consisting of : —

1. A list of the Natural History periodical publications at present
in existence, which will be amended and added to in future Numbers
of the Review, as occasion may arise. In this list the publications are
arranged according to the countries to which they belong ; and under each
of these heads they will be disposed in alphabetical order of the abbre-
viated titles placed in the left hand margin of the page, and by which
titles, for the sake of brevity, it is intended to distinguish each perio-
dical when cited in the Bibliography.

2. The Botanical Bibliography for the first nine months of 1860, so
far as it has been collected.

In the April Number the entire Bibliography will, if possible, be
brought down to the end of 1860. And at the end of the Annual Vo-
lume of the Review, it is proposed to give an alphabetical list of Authors'
names, with references to the page or pages upon which his works ap-
pear in the classified catalogues of each quarter.

The readers of the Natural History Review will thus, at the end of
each year, be furnished with a Classified list of Works or Papers in every
department of Biological Science, as well as with an alphabetical list of
Authors. "Whilst, at the beginning of each year, any additions to,
or removals from, the List of Periodical Publications, will be duly
noted.]

X. — Periodicals.
1. America.

Am. Phil. Soc. T. — Transactions of the American Philosophical So-
ciety. 4to. Philadelphia.

Bost. N. H. S. — Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural His-
tory. 8vo. Boston.

86 BIBLIOGRAPHY.-

New York Lye. — Annals of the Lyceum of Natural History of New
York. 8vo.

Phil. Acad. Journ. — Journal of the Academy of Natural Sciences of
Philadelphia. 8vo. Philadelphia.

Phil. Acad. Proc. — Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences
of Philadelphia. 8vo. Philadelphia.

Sillim. Journ. — The American Journal of Science and Art. Con-
ducted hy Professor Silliman. 8vo. New Haven.

Smiths. Cont. — Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge. 4to.
"Washington.

St. Louis Trans. — Transactions of the Academy of Science of St.
Louis. 8vo. St. Louis.

2. Great Britain, Ireland, and the Colonies.

A. N. H. — Annals and Magazine of Natural History. 8vo. Lon-
don.

B. Ass. Eep. — Reports of the British Association for the Advance-
ment of Science. 8vo. London.

Berw. N. C. — Berwickshire Naturalist's Club.

Can. Journ. — Canadian Journal of Industry, Science, and Art.

Can. Nat. — Canadian Naturalist and Geologist. 8vo. Montreal.

Dubl. Geol Soc. — Proceedings of the Geological Society of Dublin.
8vo. Dublin.

D. U. Z. B. A. — Proceedings of the Dublin University Zoological and
Botanical Association. 8vo. Dublin.

Dubl. E. S. — Journal of the Royal Dublin Society. 8vo. Dublin.

Ed. Bot. S. — Proceedings of the Botanical Society of Edinburgh.

Ed. R. Phys. S. — Proceedings of the Royal Physical Society of Edin-
burgh, w.

Geol. — The Geologist. 8vo. London.

Geol. Journ. — Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society of London.
8vo. London.

Ibis. — Ibis, the Magazine of General Ornithology. 8vo. London.

Linn. Proc. — Journal of Proceedings of the Linnean Society. 8vo.
London.

Linn. Trans. — Transactions of the Linnean Society of London. 4to.
London.

Liverp. L. & P. Soc. — Proceedings of the Literary and Philosophical
Society of Liverpool. W.

Lond. Ent. Soc. T. — Transactions of the Entomological Society of
London. 8vo. London.

Manch. L. & P. S. — Memoirs of the Literary and Philosophical So-
ciety of Manchester. W. 8vo.

Mic. Trans. — Transactions of the Microscopical Society of London.
W.

Newc. N. H. S. — Transactions of the Natural History Society of
Northumberland, Durham, and Newcastle-upon-Tyne. W.

PERIODICALS. 87

Phil. Journ. — The Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal. 8vo.
Edinburgh.

Phil. Mag. — The London, Edinburgh, and Dublin Philosophical
Magazine. 8vo. London.

Phil. Trans. — Transactions of the Royal Society of London. "W".
and N.

Q. J. M. S — Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science. 8vo.
London.

R. I. A. Trans. — Transactions of the Royal Irish Academy. 4to.
Dublin.

R. I. A. Proc. — Journal of Proceedings of Royal Irish Academy.
8vo. Dublin.

R. S. E. Proc. — Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh.
8vo. Edinburgh.

R. S. E. T. — Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. 4to.
Edinburgh.

R. S. Proc. — Proceedings of the Royal Society. 8vo. London.

Vict. Trans Transactions of the Philosophical Society of Victoria.

Zool. Proc Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London. 8vo.

London.

Z. Trans. — Transactions of the Zoological Society of London.

Zool. — Zoologist (The). A monthly magazine of popular natural
history.

3. France.

Ann. S. N. — Annales des Sciences Naturelles. 8vo. Paris.

Arch. d. Mus. — Archives du Museum d'Histoire Naturelle. 4to.
Paris.

Bourd. : Soc. Lin. — Actes de la Societe Linneenne de Bourdeaux.
8vo.

Bull. Soc. Botan. — Bulletin de la Societe Botanique de France. 8vo.
Paris.

C. rend. — Comptes rendus hebdomadaires des Seances de l'Academie
des Sciences. 4to. Paris.

C. biol. — Coinptes rendus de la Societe de Biologic 8vo. Paris.

J. de Physiol. — Journal de Physiologie de 1'Homme et des Animaux.
8vo. Paris.

L'Inst. — L'Institut. 4to. Paris.

Lyons, Soc. Lin. — Annales de la Societe Linneenne de Lyons. 8vo.

Rev. & Mag. de Z. — Revue et Magazin de Zoologie. 8vo. Paris.

Savoie Mem. — Memoires de la Societe Academique de Savoie.
Chambery.

Soc. d'Acclim. — Bulletin de la Societe Zoologique d'Acclimatation.
8vo. Paris.

Soc. Entom. Ann. — Annales de la Societe Entomologique de France.
8vo. Paris.

Soc. Geol. Bull. — Bulletin de la Societe Geologique de France.

88 BIBLIOGRAPHY.

Strasb. Mus Memoires de la Societe du Museum d'Histoire natu-

relle de Strasbourg. 4to. Strasbourg.

4. Germany.

Arch. Anat. — Archiv. f. Anat. Physiol, und w. Med. Herausg. v.
Reichert & Du Bois Reymond. 8vo. Leipzig.

Berl. E. Z. — Berlin Entomologische Zeitung. 8vo. Berlin.

Berl. Monats — Monatsberichte der kon. Preuss. Ak. d. Wissenschaft.
8vo. Berlin.

Bonn. Yerhand. d. !N". H. V.— Yerhandlungen der Naturhist. Vereines
der Preussischen Rheinlande und Westphalens. 8vo. Bonn.

Bot. Z. — Botanische Zeitung. 4to. Berlin.

D. G. Z. — Zeitschrift der Deutsches Geologisches Gesellschafft. 8vo.
Berlin.

D. K H. Zeit. — Allgemeine Deutsche Naturh. Zeitung. Herausg.
v. Drechsler. 8vo. Dresden.

Plora Elora oder Allgemeine botanische Zeitung. 8vo. Ratis-

bon.

Ereib. Ber. — Berichte ueber die Yerhandl. d. Naturf. Gesellsch. zu
Freiburg. 8vo. Preiburg.

Giess. Ber. — Berichte der Oberhessichen Gesellschaft fur Natur —
und Heilkunde zu Giessen. 8vo. Giessen.

Halle Abh. — Abhandlungen der Naturf. Gesellsch. zu Halle. 4to.
Halle.

J. f. Orn. — Journal fur Ornithologie. 8vo. Cassel.

Leips. Abh Abhandlungen der Kon. Sachsischen Gesellschaft der

Wissensch. 4to. Leipsic.

Leips. Ber. — Berichte iiber die Yerhandlungen der Kon. Sachs. Ge-
sellschaft d. Wissensch. zu Leipzig. 8vo. Leipsic.

L. and B. Jahr Jahrb. neues, fiir Mineralogie, Geognosie, Geolo-

gie, &c. Herausg. von K. C. von Leonhard u. H. G. Brorn. 8vo.
Stuttgard.

Linnea. — Linnea Journal fiir Botanik Herausg. v. Schlechtendal.
8vo. Brunswick.

Linn. Ent. — Linnaea Entomologica; Zeitzschrift d. Entom. Yereins,
Stettin. 8vo. Leipzic.

Leop. — Leopoldina ; Organ der Akademie d. Naturforscher. 4to.
Jena.

Mai. B. — Malacozoolog. Blatter; herausg von Menke u. Pfeiffer.
8vo. Cassel.

Meckl. Arch. — Archiv der Yereines der Ereunde der Naturgeschichte
in Mecklenberg. 8vo. New Brandenburg.

Mun. Abh. — Abhandlungen der kon. Bayersche Akademie der Wis-
sensch. 4to. Munich.

Mun. Sitz. — Sitzungsberichte d. Kon. Bayer. Akad. d. Wissenschaf-
ten. 8vo. Munich.

PERIODICALS. 89

Nass. Jahrb. — Jahrbiicher des Yereines fiir Naturkunde im Nassau.
8vo. Weisbaden.

Nov. Act — Nova Acta Academiae C L. Car. Naturae Curiosiorum.
4to. Jena.

Prag. Abh Abhandlungen der Kon. Bohm. Gesellschaft, &c. 4to.

Prague.

Rat. Denk Denkschriften der Bayersch. botanischen Gesellschaft

zu Regensburg. 4to. Ratisbon.

Rat. Z. M. Abh — Abhandlungen der Zoologisch-MineraL Yereins in
Regensburg. 8vo. Ratisbon.

Senck. Abh. — Abhandlungen herausg. von der Senckenbergischen
Naturf. Ge sells, am Frankfurt. 4to. Frankfurt.

Stett. Ent. Zeit. — Entomologischer Zeitung. 8vo. Stettin.

Yien. Denk. — Denkschriften der k. Akad. d. Wissenschaft. 4to.
Yienna.

Yien. Sitz. — Sitzungsberichte der Kaiserlichen Academie der WIs-
senschaften. 8vo. Yienna.

Yien. Z. B. Y. — Yerhandlungen der Zoologisch-Botanischer Yer-
eines in Wien. 8vo. Yienna.

Wiegm. Arch. — Archiv fur Naturgeschichte. Gegriindet von F. A.
Wiegmann. 8vo. Berlin.

AYurt. Jahr. — Jahreshefts des Yereins fur Yateiiandische Natur-
kunde in "Wurtemburg. 8vo. Stuttgard.

Wiirz. Nat. Z. — Wiirzburger Naturwissenschaftliche Zeitschrift.
8vo. Wurzburg.

"Wurz. Yerh. — Yerhandlungen der Phys.-Medicin. Gesellschaft in
Wiirzburg. 8vo. "Wurzburg.

Z. "W. Z. — Zeitschrift far wissensch. Zoologie. 8vo. Leipsic.

Ziir. Yiert. — Yierteljahrsschrift der Naturforschender Gesellschaft
in Zurich. 8vo. Zurich.

5. Holland, Belgium, and Switzerland.

Act. S. I. N. — Acta Societatis Scientiarum Indo-Neerlandicae.
4to. Batavia.

Amst. Yerh. — Yerhandelingen der Koninklijke AkademievanWeten-
schappen. 4to. Amsterdam.

Amst. Yersl. — Yerslagen en Mededeelingen der Koninklijke Acade-
mie van Wetenschappen. 8vo. Amsterdam.

Arch. Gen. — Archives des Sciences Physiques et Naturelles, par
Dela Rive, Marignac, &c. 8vo. Geneva & Paris.

Bas. Yerh. — Yerhandlungen der Naturforschenden Gesellschaft in
Basel. 8vo. Basle.

Bern. Mitth. — Mittheilungen der Naturforschenden Gesellschaft in
Bern. 8vo. Bern.

Bruss. Bull. — Bulletins de l'Academie Royalo des Sciences, &c, de
Bruxelles. 8vo. Brussels.

VOL. I. N. H. R. N

90 BIBLIOGRAPHY.

Brass. Mem. — Memoires de l'Academie Koyale des Sciences, des
Lettres et des Beaux- Arts de Belgique. 4to. Brussels.

Dond. Arch. — Archiv fiir die Hollandischen Beitrage zur Natur-u.-
Heilkunde. Herausg. von Donders, &c. 8vo. Utrecht.

Ent. Tijds. — Tijdsehrift voor Entomologie. 8vo. Leyden.

Gen. Inst. — Memoires de l'lnstitut National Genevais. 4to Ge-
neva.

Gen. Mem. — Memoires de la Societe de Phisique et d'Histoire na-
turelle de Geneve. 4to. Geneva.

Haarl. Yerh. — Naturkundige Yerhandelingen van de Hollandsche
Maatschappij der Wetenschappen te Haarlem. 4to. Haarlem.

Liege Mem. — Memoires de la Societe Royale des Sciences de Liege.
8vo. Liege.

Hat Art. Mag. — Jaarboekje van het Xon. Zool. Genootschap. Natura
Artis Magistra. 8vo. Amsterdam.

Neerl. Ind. Bijd. — Bijdragen tot de taal, land en Volkenkunde van
Neerlands-Indie. 8vo. Amsterdam.

Neer. Ind. Tijd Nataurkundig. Tijdsehrift, voor Neederlandsch

Indie. 8vo. Batavia.

Schweiz. Yerh. — Yerhandlungen der Schweizerischen Gesellschaft
fiir die Gesammten Naturwissenschaften. 8vo. Bern.

6. Spain and Italy.

Mad. A. C. Mem. — Memorias de la Real Academia de Ciencias de
Madrid. 4 to. Madrid.

Nap. Ac. Sc. Mem. Memorie della R. Accademia delle Scienze di
'Napoli. 4to. Naples.

Torin. Mem. — Memorie della Reale Accademia delle Scienze di
Torino. 4to. Turin.

7. Russia.

Erm. Arch Archiv fiir "Wissenschaftliche Kunde von Russland von

Erman. Berlin.

Mosc. Bull. — Bulletin de la Societe Imperiale des Nuturalistes de
Moscou. 8vo. Moscow.

Petersb. Bull. — Bulletin de l'Academie Imperiale des Sciences de
St. Petersbourg. 4to. Petersburg.

Petersb. Mem. — Memoires de l'Academie Imperiale des Sciences de
St. Petersbourg. T Serie. 4to. Petersburg.

8. Scandinavia.

Arsberatt. — Arsberattelse om Zoologiens Framsteg. 8vo. Stock-
holm.

Dansk. Afh. — Afhandlingar det kongelige Danske Yidenskabernes
Selskab. 8vo. Copenhagen

PHA NEROGAMIA. 9 1

Dansk. Overs. — Oversight over det kongelige Danske Tidenskabernes
Selskabs Forhandlingar. 8vo. Copenhagen.

Nyt. Mag. — Nyt Magazin for JSTaturvidenskaberne. 8vo. Chris-
tiania.

Svensk. Handl Konglika Svenska Yetenskaps Academiens Hand-

lingar. 4to. Stockholm.

Up. N. Act. — Nova Acta Regiee Societatis Upsaliensis. 4to. Upsala.

Videns. Med. — Yidenskabelige Meddelelser, fra den Naturhistoriske
Forening i Kjobenhavn. 8vo. Copenhagen and Leipsic.

XL — Phanerog ajiii a .

Alefeld, Dr. — Hypechusa, novum genus Viciearum (" Botanische
Zeitung," 1860, p. 165). Founded upon a few species of Vicia ( V,
hybrida, lutea, and others).

-— Ueber Pimm (" Bot. Zeit.," 1860, p. 204-5). Dr. Alefeld con-
siders all the forms of Pea which have been specifically distinguished
to belong to P. sativum, of which he regards P. elatius (M. Bieb.)
as the parent stock. Pisum frigid/urn {Lathyrus frigidus, Sch. and
K.), is the second and only other species of Pisum. P. maritimum
is a species of Orobus.

Ein Wacholderbaum ("Bot. Zeit,," 1860, p. 325). The author

describes an arborescent female Juniper growing at the village of
JNiedernhausen, near Darmstadt, about 30 feet in height, with a
circumference near the base of about 20 inches.

Archer, "William. — On the value of Hairs, as a character in deter-
mining the limits of subordinate groups of species, considered
in connexion with the genera JEurybia (Cass.) and Olearia (Monch.),
of Compositse. — " Journ. Proc. Linn. Soc." (Bot.), vol. v., p. 17-25.
The author groups the species of Eurybia and Olearia, fifty-two
in number, under five sections, based on the form and character
of the hairs of the leaves. The characters of the pappus and
hairs of the achenes are minutely detailed, and their relation to
the foregoing sections indicated by a tabulated Conspectus. Mr.
Archer's Sections are : — 1. Dicer otriclia, Poliorum pili T-formes,
vel divaricato-furcati. 2. Astrotricha, Foliorum pili stellati. 3.
Eriotricha, Foliorum pili lanati. 4. Adenotricha, Folia viscosa,
plerumque glanduloso-pilosa. 5. Merismotricha, Foliorum pili sep-
tati.

Arkdt, R. — TJeber Triticum acutum, D. C. ("Flora," 1860, p. 481-9).
The author points out the distinctions between this plant and T. jun-
ceum, and remarks on the absence of connecting links with that spe-
cies. He does not regard it as a hybrid between T.junceum and T,

92 BIBLIOGBAPHY.

repem, nor as a maritime form of the latter. A synopsis is given of
the various forms of the species, which are grouped under two series
or races ; together with descriptions and synonyms.

Ascheeson, P. — Nachtrag zur Flora von Labrador ("Flora," 1860,
369-70). In a collection of 152 species gathered by Lundberg,
near E"ain, in Labrador, Dr. Ascherson finds about 36 species of
flowering plants and ferns which are not in the lists of Schlechten-
dal ("Linnsea," 1836, p. 76), or Martens (Miin. Denk. Begensb.
Bd. iv. i. 1).

Babington, Chaeles C. — Flora of Cambridgeshire, or Catalogue of Plants
found in the county of Cambridge, with references to former cata-
logues, and the localities of the rarer species. — London, 1860, 8vo.,
327 pages. A chapter on the topography of the county, with map,
and a tabular summary of the distribution of the species, are pre-
fixed to the catalogue. An appendix contains observations upon
several critical species and genera (Thalictrum saxatile, Papaver
duhium, Viola canina, Arenaria serpyllifolia, Rulus, Serrafalcus,
and Triticum), a list of species characteristic of the vegetation of
the Fens, and another of species believed to be lost to the Cam-
bridge Flora. A short account is also given of the range of Cam-
bridge species in Britain beyond the limits of the county.

Baee, K. E. von-. — Erganzende ISTachrichten iiber Dattelpamien am
Kaspischen Meere und in Persien. — Bull. Ac. Imp. St. Petersburgh,
torn i., p. 35-7.

Andeeson, Thomas. — On Sphaeroconia, a new genus of Caryophyllese,

from Aden in Arabia Felix " Journ. Proc. Linn Soc." (Bot), vol.

v., p. 15-6. "With 1 Plate. The nearest ally of this plant is Fors-
skol's genus Gymnocarpus, from which a pair of ovules and the
bifid stigma distinguish it.

Baillon, N" Becherches Organogeniques sur la Fleur Femelle des Co-

niferes. Presented to the Academy of Sciences, April, 1860. The
author bases his views upon an extended organogenic study of the
floral organs of the order. The development of the bracts, " scales,"
and female flowers, is detailed from Taxus baccata, Phyllocladus
rhomboidalis, Torreya nucifera, Thuja, Pinus resinosa, Salisburia,
and Cupressus.

In Pinus resinosa, L., the cone presents, in its earliest stage, a
cylindro-conical axis, bearing numerous unequal alternate bracts, the
development of which is arrested at an early period. These, the au-
thor regards as the only appendicular organs of the cone. In the axil
of each bract originate minute cellular, vertically compressed, ob-
tuse processes, which eventually become the trilobate flattened
" scales," bearing a pair of female flowers upon the lower portion of
the lateral lobes. The median lobe, in the process of growth, ceases
to be the apparent apex of the scale, becoming, by a partial arrest, a
slightly incurved tooth-like projection borne near the middle of its
inner side. Dr. Baillon regards the scale as a metamorphosed branch.
Each flower originates with the rudiments of a pair of minute car-

PHANEROGAMIA . 93

pellary leaves, horse-shoe shaped, and with their concavities turned
towards each other. These become connate, forming round the
plane receptacle an elliptical enclosure. With the growth of the
axial " scale" the position of the rudimentary flower alters — at first
with the aperture directed laterally, it afterwards becomes directed
slightly downwards. The carpellary leaves elongate, forming, as it
were, an ovarian sac, continuous below, and divided above into two
sty line branches (branches stylaires). In the centre, at first free
from the surrounding carpellary walls, is developed, in direct prolon-
gation of the floral receptacle, a rounded swelling, which eventually
forms the basilar ovule.

In Cupressus, the floral axis, which is similar to that of Thuja
and Salisburia bears empty bracts. Above each bract, and at a to-
lerable distance from their insertion, a dicarpellary pistil originates
opposite to their median line. Soon another flower is produced in
front of, and below, the first, then two others upon the sides ; addi-
tional flowers develope exterior to these, and lower en the axis, sur-
rounding them in several irregular circles. Thus is formed a small,
centrifugal, axillary inflorescence, in some measure comparable to the
axillary glomerules of the Labiatae, which, as in Cupressus, collec-
tively form a kind of spike.

Dr. B. embodies the results of his investigation in the following
propositions : —

1. The female flowers of the Coniferae differ but slightly from each
other in essential particulars. They are formed upon one type, and,
regarded apart, afford no basis for the division of the Order into
Pinaceae and Taxaceae.

2. The female flower is either terminal, or borne in the axil of a
bract or of a leaf. It is always, however, as Schleiden also remarks,
supported upon an axial process, and never upon a bract. As is the
case in receptacles, the form of this axis is very variable.

3. As also Mirbel and Spach have regarded it, the flower is not
gymnospermous, but possesses a true dicarpellary ovary, without
floral envelopes, containing an orthotropal, erect ovule attached to a
basilar placenta.

4. The cupule of various consistence and form which surrounds
the ovaiy, and which in several genera has received the name of aril,
is a later production, although anterior to fecundation, as is the case
of those floral organs resulting from an ulterior expansion of the
axis, which have been termed discs.

The Memoir is accompanied by figures, exhibiting the consecu-
tive stages of development of the "scales" and female flowers in
Finns resinosa.

Baitragez. — Pilanzenkunde d. Russischen Peichs. — Part II., plate. Pe-
torsb., 1860, Poyal 8vo.

Bentham, George. — Synopsis of Dalbergiece, a tribe of Leguminosae. —
" Journ. Proc. Linn. Soc," vol. iv. (Botany, Suppl.), 134 pp. Mr.
Bentham, while engaged in editing the Leguminosse for the " Flora

94 BIBLIOGRAPHY.

Brasiliensis" of Von Martius, having found it needful to revise the
entire tribe Dalbergiea?, and to compare the Brazilian genera and
species with those of the Tropics of the Old World, has been led to
draw up a synopsis of the whole tribe, with brief characters of all
the species.

The numerous accessions of specimens from all parts of the Tro-
pics since the publication of the author's Memoir in the Annal. Wie-
ner Mus., in 1837, have enabled him to modify the circumscription
of many of the genera which were then proposed, and to reduce
others which had been based upon insufficient material. To the de-
scriptive portion of this paper is prefixed an introductory chapter,
embracing general observations upon the main features of the Dal-
bergieae, their economic uses, and geographical distribution. The
genera are also severally reviewed. The Bosewoods of commerce are
furnished by members of the group. The two best varieties imported
from Rio are supplied by the genus Dallergia, chiefly by D. nigra ;
other sorts are afforded by Machcerium, and in Africa, by Pterocarpus.
Mr. Bentham observes, that the great majority of species of the tribe
occupy but very limited areas. There is not one species common to
Asia and America ; five or six are common to America and West
Africa. Of 200 American species, but 5 extend from northern or
central Brazil to the West Indies and Central America. The 286
species of Dalbergieae here described are distributed in 23 genera,
which are grouped under three principal sections, viz. Pterocarpeai,
with dry fruit, and leaflets mostly alternate along the petiole ; Lon-
cJiocarpece, also with dry fruit, but with the leaflets more strictly
opposite ; and Geoffroyece, with a usually drupaceous fruit, and a
single pendulous seed.

Beurling, P. J. — Plantae vasculares seu cotyledoneae Scandinavia,
nempe Sveciae et Norvegiae, juxta Eegni vegetabilis systema na-
turale digests? . 8vo. Holmiae.

Bianca, G. — Flora dei intorni d'^vola. Memorie che contiene la de-
scrizione delle piante comprese nelle classe Diadelphia. — Catan.
Acad. Giorn. xiv.

Bibra Die Getreidearten und das Brod. 8vo. Niirnberg, 1860.

Boissier, E. — Centuria Euphorbiarum. Lipsiae et Parisiis : April, 1860.
8vo.

Bolle, C. — Addenda ad floram Atlantidis praeeipue insularum Canari-
ensium Gorgadumque. (Continuation) Bonplandia, viii. Jahrg., p.
130-6 (Composite) 279-87 (Labiatae, Yerbenaceae).

Boussingatjlt, M. — De la Terre vegetale considered dans ses effets sur
la vegetation (Comptes Eendus, 1859). — Ann. des Sciences, Ser. iv.,
torn, xii., p. 354-72.

M. Boussingault's investigations bear reference to the relations
subsisting between the amount of matter of organic origin contained
in vegetable soils, and the extent to which this is really available to
plants.

Braun, A. — Uebor Poly embryonic u. Keimung v. Ccelelogyne. Ein Nach-

PHANEKOOAMIA. 95

trag zu der Abhandlg. iib. Parthenogenesis bei Pflanzen. 6 plates.
4to. Berlin, 1860. (Berl. Abh., 1859).

and C. Bottche. — Index Seminum in Horto Bot. Berolinensi,

1858. Ann. des Sc. Nat. Ser. iv., tom. xii„ p. 380.

Btjchenatt, F. — Die Sprossverhaltnisse von TTlex. — Flora, 1860, p.
449-56.

Bunge, Alex, de — Letter from, to M. Decaisne. Bull. Soc. Bot. de
France, tom. vii. p. 29, 30.

This letter is in reply to one addressed to M. Bunge, prior to his
departure for Persia, by M. Decaisne, directing his attention to the
investigation of original sources of certain economic plants and pro-
ducts, the collecting of seeds, occurrence oiChamcerops and the Date
Palm in Persia, &c. M. Bunge, in reply states — 1. That he was
unable to learn anything as to the origin of cereals. 2. The Melon
was not indigenous in those parts of Persia which he visited. A
Bryonia was the only Cucurbitacea. 3. He did not observe the
Horse Chesnut (JEseulus Hippocastanum), either wild or in cultiva-
tion. Pinus and Abies were absent. Platanus orientalis was not
met with in the wild state. 4. The Persian Lilac, Apricot, and Peach,
were not found wild, neither was any species of Lilium, or Quercus
mannifera. 5. The date occurred only at Teber — in autumn, laden
with fruit — and at Chabbis, in spring, in full flower. The dates
were quite ripe at Teber by the end of October. No other palms
were met with.

Bueeall, Ed. — Laboratoire de Botanique a la Faculte des Sciences de
Paris. A Letter to Count Jaubert. — Bull. Soc. Bot. de France, tom.
vii., p. 5-8.

Cartjel, F. — Observations sur la nature et 1'origine de la pulpe qui en-
toure les graines dans certains Fruits. — Ann. Sc. Nat. (Bot.), Ser. iv.,
tom. xii., p. 72-7.

The author traces the development of pulp in the fruit of various
species belonging to the following orders, viz. Cucurbitaceae, Solana-
ceae, Ericaceae (Arbutus unedo), Cappariclaceae, Aurantiaceae, Cacta-
ceae, Aroideae. In most Cucurbitaceae the tissue of the recurved parie-
tal placentas interposes itself between the ovules, which it encloses in
distinct cavities. "With maturation of the fruit, this placentary cellu-
lar tissue becomes the pulp of varying consistence, in which the seeds
are usually found to be embedded. In Momordica the placental tissue
becomes spongy and orange-coloured ; the layer surrounding each seed
ultimately separates from the rest of the tissue, and forms around it a
distinct closed envelope. Similar arilloid sacs envelope the seeds in
Trichosanthes anguina, Bryonia verrucosa, and, perhaps, Joliffia
Africana {Telfairia pedata, Ilk). In Solanaceae, after flowering, the
folds of the endocarp advance towards the interior of the young fruit,
eventually uniting with the placentas ; at the same time, being inter-
posed between the seeds, they form for each of them a separate niche.
In the Tomato (as also in Arbutus unedo), the expansions of tissue sur-
rounding the seeds are due to prolongations from the placentas. In

96 BIBLIOGRAPHY.

the Orange, the pulp originates from the numerous papillae which, at
the time of flowering, cover more or less the walls of the cells of
the ovary. These elongate without branching, and entirely fill the
cavity of the loculaments. At maturity, the cellular tissue of which
they are composed is filled with yellow juice.

In the species of Cactaceae with pulpy fruits, the pulp is an ap-
pendage of the seed, or rather an arillus, or false testa, derived from
the funiculus. Many Aroideae have a pulp consisting of isolated,
soft, confervoid cellular filaments originating on the placenta, the
funiculus, and around the base of the ovules.

Carriere, M. — Considerations generates surl'espece. — Eev.Hort., 1860,
pp. 383-8, 416-9. (Instances of variation in ornamental trees and
shrubs, and in forest trees), p. 443-6. (Instances of variation, and
the formation of races in animals).

Sur quelques Varietes de Yucca. Eev. Hort., 1860, pp. 358-64.

Descriptions of six cultivated varieties of Yucca gloriom.

Sur la Transformation des vegetaux. Befutation de la Trans-

formation spe cinque des vegetaux par l'eifet des milieux dans les-
quels ils croissent. — Eev. Sort., 1860, p. 65-71. Eelates to Mr.
Buckman's experiments on Glyceria fluitans and Poa aquatica, and
to the supposed transformation of ^Eplops into Triticum. No new
facts are recorded.

Cesati, J. and T. de Notaris. — Index Seminum Hort. Eeg. Bot. Ge-
nuensis, 1858. — Ann. Be. Nat. Ser. iv., torn, xii., p. 381.

Chatin, Ad. — Note sur un cas Teratologique offert par V Henophyton
deserti. — Bull. Soc. Bot. de France, torn, vii., pp. 10, 11. In this
monstrosity the ovaries were developed into a kind of gall, owing to
insect-puncture.

Crepin, Fr. — Manuel de la Flore de Belgique. Bruxelles, 1860. 8vo.
pp. 236.

The descriptive portion of this "Flora" is preceded by chapters
on Herbaria and Herborisations, the Geographical Botany of Bel-
gium, the " Vegetable Species," and a Glossary of terms. The author
bases the four botanical regions of Belgium upon the principal geo-
logical divisions of the country. The geological and physical fea-
tures of these regions are described, and lists given of their charac-
teristic species. Analytical tables of the orders, genera, and species
are also furnished. The descriptions are in French.

Note sur quelques Plantes rares ou critiques de la Belgique. —

Bull. Acad. Eoy. Belgique. Ser. ii., vol. vii.

Cruger, Hermann. — Outlines of the Flora of Trinidad. — Appendix L. to
" Eeport on the Geology of Trinidad." By G. P. Wall and J. G. Saw-
kins. London, 1860. 8vo. pp. 178-95. Embracing a sketch of the ve-
getation of the forests, mountains, savannas, &c, and of the generally
prevailing physiognomic forms. In reference to the botany of the cele-
brated Pitch Lake, near San Fernando, with an area of 99 acres,
H. Cruger states, a Chara and some Confervae to grow in the water,
filling the crevices which intersect the surface of the pitch. About

PHANEEOGAMIA. 97

the borders of the lake are a few mosses, lichens, grasses, and sedges ;
and where the broken, weathered pitch becomes looser, are found
Clusia, Chry sob aJ anus, Anona palmtris, Bromeliaeeae, Ferns, &c. A
catalogue is given of the genera, both of Phanerogams and Crypto-
gams, which have been observed by the author in the island.

Datjbeny, Charles. — Remarks on the Final Causes of the Sexuality of
Plants, with particular reference to Mr. Darwin's Work on the Origin
of Species. Oxford, 1860. 8vo. 34 pages. With 1 plate.

Dickie, Geoege. — The Botanist's Guide to the Counties of Aberdeen,
Banff, and Kincardine. Aberdeen, 1860. 1vol. 8vo. 344 pages.
A few observations on the physical features, and a summary of
the physical and geological structure of the counties, by Alexander
Cruikshank, are prefixed to the list of species. The altitudinal range
of the species, and the stations of the less common ones, are given.

Duchaetee, P. — Recherches physiologiques, anatomiques, et organo-

geniques sur la Colocase des Anciens Ann. Sc. Nat. Bot. Ser. iv.,

torn, xii., pp. 232-79. With 4 plates.

The author's observations bear special reference to the remark-
able phenomenon of the secretion of water by the minute orifices at
the extremity of the leaves. M. Berthelot, at the author's request,
analyzed the excreted water, and found it almost absolutely pure ;
faint traces, only, of chloride of potassium, carbonate of lime, and
organic mucilage, were perceptible. M. Duchartre regards the emis-
sion of fluid to be directly due to diminished transpiration of the leaves :
that transpiration and aqueous excretion stand in inverse ratio to each
other, though at the same time they are but different manifestations
of the same physiological phenomenon. The author's anatomical
investigations were directed mainly to the system of canals in the sub-
marginal nerve-like thickening of the leaves, and to the orifices ter-
minating them, by which the water finds an exit. Examination of
the development and structure of the excretory orifices shows them
to be greatly altered and enlarged stomata. Minute observations
are appended on the development and rate of expansion of the leaf.

Note sur deux Fleurs monstrueuses de Cattleya Forbesii, Lindh

— Bull. Soc. Bot. de France, torn, vii., p. 257.

In one of these flowers the segments of the perianth were re-
duced to five, the labellum and one of the lateral sepals being united
by their margins into a single large segment, the halves of which
were distinctly separated, as it were, by a longitudinal thick stripe of
bright yellow colour. Each of the united segments retained its cha-
racteristic colour, texture, and position * but while the sepal retained
its normal breadth, the labellum to which it was united acquired
but half its dimensions. Owing to this reduction of the labellum,
the unaltered column was entirely laid bare. The two petals were
but slightly altered, the most remarkable feature being, that the one
next to the monstrous labellum had contracted a close union with
the lower half of the column in the direction of its median line.
Both retained their normal position. Tn the upper flower of the

VOL. I. — X. H. E. O

98 BIBLIOGRAPHY.

same inflorescence, the inferior sepal, and one of the lateral pair, had
undergone no alteration ; the other lateral sepal was affected as in
the other flower, being united throughout with the semi-labellum.
The two lateral petals remained normal and free. "Within the com-
pound lobe, resulting from the union of the lateral sepal and label-
rum was an entire, free, slightly trilobate, second labellum, traversed
by a thick longitudinal stripe. The right side of this labellum was
nearly flat, and with an undulate margin ; a portion of the left side
was sharply curved inwards, becoming parallel to the rest of the seg-
ment, and between it and the column. Within these was a third
and yet smaller, spreading, supplementary labellum, with its back
turned to the plane face of the column, and bearing slight traces of
a thickened median line. The median line of the large labellum was
sensibly turned towards the left, that of the small inner one, toward
the right. The three labels were placed nearly in front of each
other ; the intermediate free one probably representing the normal
labellum.

L'eau de la pluie qui mouille et lave les organes exterieurs

des plantes, est-elle absorbee directement ? Eecherches experimen-
tales sur cette question. — Bull. Soc. Bot. de France, torn, vii., pp.
86-92.

The detail of eight observations is given upon four species {Fuch-
sia glohosa, Veronica Lindley ana, China Aster, and Phlox decussata).
From M. Duchartre's experiments it results, that plants exposed to
rain for various intervals up to 12 hours, having the pots containing
their roots perfectly closed, acquired no increase in weight ; on the
contrary, in some cases, a slight decrease was manifest, due to loss
by transpiration.

Diifour, Leon. — De la valeur historique et sentimentale d'un herbier
2eme partie. Souvenirs 'd'Espagne. — Bull. Soc. Bot. de France,
torn, vii., pp. 103-9.

Engelmann, George. — Systematic arrangement of the species of the
genus Cuseuta, with critical remarks on old species, and descriptions
of new ones. St. Louis, 1859. (Ext. Trans. Acad. Sciences, St. Louis,
1859, vol. i, pp. 453-523).

Two new Dioecious grasses of the United States. — Trans.

Acad. Science, St. Louis. 1859, pp. 431-442, with 3 plates.

These grasses are regarded as types of new and distinct genera,
both of which, probably, belong to Chlorideae — Buchlbe dactyloides,
Engelm. (the Buffalo-grass of the Western Prairies), and Monan-
thochloe liUoraUs, Engelm. (from Texas and Florida).

Fenzl, Ed. — Delectus Seminum in Hort. Bot. Univ. Yindobonensis col-
lectorum anno 1858. — .inn. Sc. Nat. (Bot.). Ser. iv., torn, xii.,
pp. 165-6.

Frauenfeld, Georg. — Ueber exotische Pflanzenauswiichse erzeugt von
Insecten. — Verhandlgn. ZooL-Bot. Gesellsch. Wien. Bd. ix., pp.
319-32, with 2 plates.

PIIANEROGAMIA. 99

Relating chiefly to galls and monstrous growths on Tamarix,
Deverra, Zygophyllum, and other eastern plants.

Eremy, E. — Recherches Chemiques surla composition des cellules vege-
tales. — Ann. des Sciences Nat. (Bot.). Ser. iv., torn. xii. pp. 320-353.
(Ext. from Comptes Rendus).

M. Ere my' s observations relate chiefly to results obtained by the
treatment of vegetable tissues with the ammonuret of copper, in which
he finds the true cellulose layer of the cell- walls to be readily solu-
ble together with the azotised matter which often occurs in it ; while
the inner deposits, having pectine as their base, are insoluble, and are
left as pectate of copper, retaining the form of the original cells. M.
Ere my announces the discovery of a new acid, which he terms " cel-
lulic," comparable to malic acid, and forming soluble compounds
with all bases. It is obtained by submitting the carefully washed
pulp of fruits or succulent roots to the action of lime, with which it
forms a cellulate, and from which it may be separated by oxalic acid.
The distinctive chemical characters presented by ligneous and cor-
tical fibrous tissue and pith are detailed. Special chapters are de-
voted to the chemical examination of cuticle, the composition of the
prosenchyma, vessels, and medullary rays of wood ; also to the com-
position and mode of formation of gums in vegetable organisms.

Gasparrini, G Ricerche sugli organi assorbente delle radice, et sulle

loro escrezioni. Osservazioni sull'origine dell' embrione seminale
della Lemna minor. — Napol. Mem. II.

Gray, Asa. — Note on the Species of Nissolia. — Jour. Proc. Linn. Soc.
(Bot.), vol. v., pp. 25-6.

Diagnoses are given of N. Wislizeni, and N. Schottii, A. Gr.

Geis, Arthur Observations sur la fleur des Marantees — Ann. Sc. Nat.

(Bot.). Ser. iv., torn, xii., pp. 193-219, with 4 plates.

A minute account is given of the floral structure of species exa-
mined by the author in the living state in the Jardin des Plantes,
with observations on the function of the staminodia in the process
of fertilisation. The structure of the fruit, and especially of the
seeds (of Thalia dealbata, and other species), is described in detail.

Hammar, 0. — Monographia generis Euniariarirm. 6 plates. 4to. —
TJps. Acta. ii. 2.

Han-stein. — Ueber ein noch nicht bekanntes System schlauchformiger
Gefasse im Parenchym der Blatter. Berl. Mon. 59 (11).

Harvey, "W. H. — " Thesaurus Capensis;" or, Illustrations of the South
African Flora. Yol. i, Parts 3, 4. 8vo. Plates 51-100.

Pleiospora, a new genus of Legurninosse, near Psoralea ; also
Tryphostemma, a genus of Passiflorese, with flowers not larger than
those of chickweed, are described and figured.

and 0. W. Sonder. — Elora Capensis ; a Systematic Description

of the Plants of the Cape Colony, Canraria, and Port Natal. Vol. 1 .
(RanunculaceaB to Connaraceae).

Hassearl, J". K. — Hortus Bogoriensis Descriptus. Continuation. Bon-
plandia. viii. Jahrg., pp. 90-100. Serophulariacea?, Solanaceoe (the

100 BIBLIOGRAPHY.

generic character of Jochroma is re-written), Gesneriaceae, Palmse,
and Smilacese.

Henslow, J. S., and E. Skepper. — Flora of Suffolk. London, 8vo.

A catalogue of the plants, indigenous or naturalized, found in a
wild state in the county of Suffolk, with the times of flowering, and
the localities of the less common species.

Heyer, Karl, and Julius Rossmann. — Phanerogamen-Elora der Provinz
Oberhessen, ihsbesondere der umgegend von Giessen. — Oberhes-
sisch. Gesell. Natur-und Heilkunde. Achter Bericht., App. 96
pages.

Extends to the genus Lathyrus. The descriptions are in German.
The nature of the habitats, and the special locality of rarer species,
are given, also the vulgar name of each species ; if only generic,
the Latin adjective is translated.

Hildebrand, Dr. — Der Bau der Coniferenspaltoffnungen und einige
Bemerkungen liber die Yertheilung dersel ben. — Botanische Zeitung,
1860, p. 149, with 1 plate.

Hoefmann, Hermann Yergleichende Studien zur Lehre von der Bo-

denstetigkeit. der Pflanzen. — Oberhessisch : Gesell. Natur-imd Heil-
kunde. Achter Bericht., pp. 1-12, with 2 maps.

In reference to the opposing views as to whether familiar geo-
gnostic relations of certain species are dependent upon the physical
conditions or the chemical composition of the soil, Dr. Hoffmann
states his opinion, based upon special investigations which he has in-
stituted in the neighbourhoods of Giessen and Kissingen, that in
the case of the so-called chalk-plants, the presence of a certain pro-
portion of lime has the first influence. Close inquiry into apparently
exceptional cases, and analysis of the soil, the author finds to con-
firm his view. When a " chalk-plant" is found isolated, on sand-
stone, for example, the number of individuals does not increase, nor
does the plant thrive, and its existence is but transitory. Dr. Hoff-
mann shows, upon small maps of the vicinity of Giessen and Kissin-
gen, having the alluvium, and the basaltic and calcareous formations
shaded in, the localities of Prunella grandiflora and Lianthus ear-
thusianorum. The basalt near Giessen contains from 7 to 12 per cent,
of lime.

, Yegetationszeiten in dem Jahr 1859 Oberhessisch. Gesell. Na-

tur-und Heilkunde. Achter Bericht., p. 85.

A table of observations made at Giessen, Pfeddersheim, Marburg,
and Messel, on the periods of first expansion and full flowering of 37
species, including Horse Chesnut, Laburnum, Crocus vemus, Apple,
Bobinia, Lilac, Yine, winter Wheat, &c.

Hofmeister, W. — Nouveaux documents destines a faire connaitre la
formation de L'Embryon des Phanerogames. — Annales des Sciences
Naturelles, (Bot.). Ser. iv., torn, xii., pp. 5-71.

A partial translation of Hofmeister's paper entitled, " Neue Beit-
rage zurKenntniss der Embryo-bildimg der Phanerogamen' ' (in Abhdg,
Kon. Sachs. Ges. d. Wissensch. vi.).

ril.VXEtlOGAMIA. 101

Hogg, John. — Note on the Tree Mallow. — Jour. Proc. Linn. Soc. (Bot.),
vol. v., pp. 51-2.

A specimen grown in the north of England from seeds collected
in the south of Ireland, and sown in April, 1858, was killed by the
frost of December, 1859. "When cut down, the stem measured 2|
inches in diameter, exclusive of the bark. Mr. Hogg directs at-
tention to the value of the fibre of the bark, and the importance of
the cultivation of the Lavatera on its account.

Hooker, J. D. — Note sur l'origine et le developpement des umes dans
les plantes du genre Nepenthes. Jour. Trans. Linn. Soc, London,
1859.— Ann. Sc Nat. (Bot.). Ser. iv., torn, xii., pp. 222-31.

On Fropiera. A new Mauritian genus of Calycifioral Exo-

gens, of doubtful affinity. — Jour. Proc. Linn. Soc, vol. v., pp. 1, 2,
with 1 plate.

Founded upon specimens collected in the Mauritius by Sieber,
M. Bouton, and others. In habit Fropiera resembles some IlicineaB ;
but its glandular, entire leaves, with closely parallel, and also intra-
marginal veins, indicate a relationship with Myrtacese, of which
order Dr. Hooker is disposed to regard it as an anomalous ally.

On Barteria. A new genus of Passhiorea3, from the Niger

River. — Jour. Proc Linn. Soc, vol. v. (Bot.), pp. 14-5.

A remarkable and anomalous addition to Passiflorese, collected by
the late Mr. Barter. The stigmas are consolidated into an indis-
tinctly-lobed, capitate mass, exceeding the ovary in diameter. The
stamens are numerous, and bi- serial.

(The following is a brief notice of a paper read by Dr. J.

D. Hooker before the Linnean Society, 21st June, 1860, on the
Distribution and Affinities of North Polar Vegetation. This paper
will appear in the "Transactions of the Linnean Society of London.")

The Arctic Flora is comprised within a belt of 10° to 14° latitude,
N., of the Arctic circle. The number of Phanerogamia hitherto col-
lected within this belt amounts to 806 (Monocotyledons, 218, Dico-
tyledons, 588). Cryptogams may be approximately estimated at a
little over 900. The predominating type in Arctic vegetation is the
Scandinavian : Arctic Scandinavia alone containing three-fourths of
the species. The Asiatic and American types are very subordinate.
The general character of the vegetation is continuous in longitude,
without abrupt break, excepting in the meridian of Baffin's Bay,,
where the contrast between the almost purely European Flora of the
east coast, and the American element of the west, is very marked.

Dr. Hooker divides the region of the Arctic Flora into five pro-
vinces, viz. : —

Proportion of
Scandinavian species.

Arctic Europe (extending east to the Obi),
containing (about) 607 species,
„ Asia, „ 218

,, West America, ,, 349 ,,

„ East, „ 359

,, Greenland, ,, 192 ,,

93 :

: 100

86 :

100

72 :

: 100

71 :

100

95 ;

: 100

102 BIBLIOGRAPHY.

This table conspicuously shows the close affinity of the Flora of
the Greenland peninsula with that of Scandinavia, notwithstanding its
geographical position. Temperate Greenland, though 400 miles long,
adds but 74 species to the comparatively poor Flora of the entire
peninsula, and of these, all but two are Arctic Lapland plants.

The poverty and peculiarity of the Greenland Flora, and absence
of American types in it, are not explained by the general physical
features of contiguous regions, or by aerial or oceanic currents.

Dr. Hooker attributes chief importance to past extensive cli-
matal changes, and to its peninsular form. He assumes — 1 . The great
antiquity of the Scandinavian type. 2. He agrees with Darwin and
Forbes, in considering that, prior to the Glacial Epoch, a uniform
Flora was more widely extended over the circumpolar area than at
the present period; as also — 3. That by the increased cold of the
Glacial Period the Scandinavian Arctic Flora was driven into lower
latitudes, returning northwards with the succeeding warmth of the
present period, accompanied by species peculiar to the tracts invaded
by it. 4. That many of the species of the Greenland peninsula, cut
off by isolation from the general southward migration, were exter-
minated. 5. That from the species which survived this period in the
southern extremity of Greenland, the present Flora is chiefly derived.
6. That from its peninsular form there could be no admixture of
American types.

The botanical provinces, and the local distribution of plants
within the Arctic circle — also the general distribution of Arctic
species over the surface of the globe — are discussed at length. A
systematic catalogue is given of all the species hitherto found in
Arctic regions, tabulated, to show the distribution of each, both
within the circle, and generally over the world.

Iruisch, Th. — Ueber einige Ranunculaceen. — Botanische Zeitung, 1860,
p. 221-7, with 1 plate. Pt. iii. Eranthis hiemalis. A detailed ac-
count of its germination, formation of bulbs, flower, &c.

Beitrage zur Morphologie der monocotylischen Gewachse.

Parti. Amaryllideen.— Halle. 1860. 4to. 11 plates.

Jankee, V. de. — Adnotationes in plantas adacicas nonnullasque alias
Europeas. — Linncea. Bd. xiv., pp. 549-622.

An enumeration of species arranged in their natural sequence,
with observations and descriptions of those which are new, critical,
or imperfectly described. On Festuca nutans of Wahlenberg, a new
genus (Am phi genes) is based. An analytical table of the species of
Sesleria is given.

Junghuhn, F., and J. E. de Yry. — Die Chinakultur auf Java zu Ende
des Jahres 1859, kurz beschreiben. — Bonplandia viii. Jahrg, pp.
206-10, 227-42, 254-8, 270-9.

The first section consists of a report, by F. Junghuhn, on the
condition of the Cinchon&s which have been planted, in a botanical and
cultural point of view. The second, by Dr. de Vry, refers to the
organic constituents of the Java Cinchonas, and their chemical cha-
racteristics.

PHANEEOGAMIA. 103

Kabsten, H. — Das Geschlechtsleben cler Pflanzen u. die Parthenoge-
nesis.— Berlin, 1860. 4to. 2 plates.

Florae Colunibiae terrarumque adjacentium specimina selecta,

Tom. L, Fasc. 2.— Berlin, 1860. Folio. 20 plates.

Keil, Feanz. — Ueber die Pflanzen-und Thierwelt der Kreuzkofl-Gruppe
nachst Lienz in Tirol. — Yerhandlgn. Zool. — Bot. Gesellsch. "Wien.
Bd. ix., pp. 151-166.

Keenee, A. — Die Formationen immergriiner Ericineen in der Nord-
liche Kalkalpen. — Bonplandia viii. Jahrg., pp. 210-2, 287-9.

Koenicee, Fe. — Ueber Bidcns tripartita, L. nodiflora, L. radiata, Thl.
and platycephala, Oer. — Bonpl. viii. Jahrg.. pp. 222-7.

Kotschy, Theodoe. — Die Eichen Europa's und des Orients. — Liefg. v.,
with 5 plates.

Lehmann. — Index Seminum in Horto. Bot. JXamburgensi, 1858. —
Ann. Sc. Nat. Bot. Ser. iv., torn, xii., pp. 220-1.

Linden, J. — Hortus Lindenianus. Recueil iconographique des plantes
nouyelles introduites par l'etablissement de J". Linden, au jarclin
royal de zoologie et d' horticulture a Bruxelles. 2 liyr. — Bruxelles,
25 coloured plates. 8yo.

Lowe, E. T. — A list of plants observed or collected at Mogador, and in
its immediate environs, during a few days' visit to the place in April,
1859; with notes and observations. — Jour. Proc. Linn. Soe. (Bot.),
vol. v., pp. 26-45.

The author remarks the Andalusian or Spanish- European cha-
racter of the vegetation. Palms, Bananas, Cactaceae, the Canarian
shrubby Euphorbiacese and Madeiran Composite, Labiatae, and Cru-
ciferae, are wanting. Trees are absent from the coast region, which
is more or less clothed with Retama monosperma, Pistacia lentiscus,
dwarf Argania, &c. Peganum harmala abounds on the shore.

A catalogue is given of the 177 Phanerogamous plants observed.
Of these, one-fourth are common to Mogador, Algeria, Britain, the
Canaries, and Madeira ; two-thirds are common to Mogador and
Algeria. Critical notes are appended on certain of the species.

Macvicae. — Vegetable Morphology : its general principles. — Edin. New
Phil. Jour., 1860. 20 pages.

Maeties, C. F. Ph. von. — Flora Brasiliensis. Fasc. xxv. Santalaceae and
Myristicaceae, by Alph. de Candolle. Fasc. xxvi. Apocynaceae, by
J.Mueller. Lipsiae, 1860.

Maximowicz, C. J. — Primitiae Florae Amurensis (Ext. Mem. Ac. Imp.
St. Petersbg., t, ix., 1859. 4to. 504 pages. 10 plates and map.
The new genera described arer: — Plagiorhegma (Berberideae) ;
Hylomecon (Papaveraceae) ; Schizopepon and Jlitrosicyos (Cucurbi-
taceae) ; Eleutherococcus (Araliaceae) ; Symphyllocarpus, Syneilcsis
(Compositae) ; Pterygocalyx (Gentianaceae) ; Omplialotrix (Scrophu-
lariacese).

Meinshatjsen, K. F. — Beitrag zur Pflanezengeographie des Sud-TJral-
gebirges. — Linnaea. Bd. xiv., pp. 465-548, with 1 plate.

The author was engaged, in the summer of 1844, as collector to

104 BIBLIOGRAPHY.

the Imperial Botanic Gardens in the Southern Ural. This paper
contains a general notice of the vegetation of those parts visited by
him, with observations on the relations of the Flora of this region.
An enumeration of the flowering plants and ferns of the South Ural,
with notes on the flowering or fruiting period of most of the species,
is appended.

Melicocq,, Baron. — Les Forets du Nord de la France aux xve, xvie, et
xviie siecles. — Bull. Soc. Bot. de France, torn, vii., p. 11-14.

Miers, John. — On the Tribe Colletieae, with some observations on the
structure of the seed in the family of the Rhanmacese. — Annals and
Mag. Nat. Hist. 3 ser., vol. v., pp. 76-95, 200-216, 267-73,
370-81, 482-92.

Mr. Miers prefixes to the descriptive portion of his paper a de-
tailed account of the structure of the seed of Colletia dumosa, and of
several species of Rhamnus, Frangula, Zhyplms, and Alpliitonia.

The Colletiece are divided into three sections. — 1. Eucolletiece,
Flores apetali ; fructus capsularis, dehiscens (including Notophaena,
gen. nov.). 2. Chcenocarpece, Flores petaliferi ; fructus capsularis,
dehiscens. 3. Clethrocarpece, Flores petaliferi; fructus nucumen-
taceus et lignosus aut membranaceus, fere semper indehiscens (in-
cluding Scypliaria, gen. nov.). The genera and species (of which 21
are new), are minutely described.

Mohl, H. von. — Ueber die anatomischen Veranderungen des Blattge-
lerikes, welche das Abfallen der Blatter herbeifuhren. — Bot. Zei-
tung, 1860, pp. 1-7, 9-17.

Yon Mohl details his observations upon the phenomena presented
by various species, and particularizes certain exceptional conditions
which occurred to him. Generally speaking, the essential structural
change which is the immediate cause of the fall of leaves takes place
in a transverse layer of the cells of the petiole. The cells of this
layer usually soften, become filled with plastic contents, multiply by
division, and finally their membranes separate in a determinate
plane.

Ueber den Ablosungsprocess saftiger Pflanzenorgane. — Bota-

nische Zeitung, 1850, pp. 273-7.

The author investigates the immediate causes which determine
the fall of the undeveloped extremities of branches during summer ;
of flowers, and of floral organs. In the case of the caducous apical
buds, their fall is due to the separation from each other of the starch-
or protein-containing cells of a transverse divisional plane, in a man-
ner corresponding to that obtaining in the petiole of leaves. The
fall of flowers (as in JEsculus, male flowers of Cucurbitacese, peri-
gonial leaves of Lilium, &c), is consequent on the rounding and
mutual separation of the cells of similar divisional planes.

Mueller, J. — Genera nova tria Apocynacearum extra-brasiliensi-ame-
ricana. — Botanische Zeitung, 1860, pp. 21-3. The genera are Ely-
tropus, Predoniopsis, Urechites.

Species novas nonnullae ainericanae ex ordine Apocynearum

PHANEROGAMIA. 105

et observations quoedam in species generis Evhiiis Auctorum

earumque distributio in genera emendata et nova LinneaBd. xiv.,

pp. 387-454.

Munch, Pfakbee. — Mittheilungen iiber einige Loranthaceen. — Flora,
I860, p. 465.

Diagnoses of Visimm album, and Loranthus europceus, with ob-
servations on their general history, distribution, germination, &c.

Nageh, C. — Beitrage zur wissensehaftlichen Botanik. Part II. —
Leipsic, 1860. 8vo. 192 pages, 8 plates, 4to.

Movements of plants, right and left. Motion of cells and contents.
On the alleged occurrence of free or amorphous starch in Ornitho-
galum.

1Staudin, Ch. — Revue des Cucurbitacees cultives au Museum, en 1859. —
Ann. Sc. Nat. (Bot.). Ser. iv., torn, xii., pp. 79-164, with. 3 plates.
M. Naudin prefixes to the descriptive portion of this memoir, ob-
servations upon the nature and disposition of some of the floral or-
gans of the Cucurbitaceae, in continuation of a notice previously pub-
lished by him (Ann. Sc. Nat. (Bot.) Ser. iv., torn, iv., p. 5, et seq.).
The so-called calyx-tube of the male flower, M. Naudin regards
as a campanulate or tubuliform dilatation of the extremity of the
peduncle ; in other words, that it is a true receptacle, comparable to
that of the rose, in the composition of which the calycine leaves take
no part. He states the theory of congenital union or coalescence of
the calyx segments to be, in the case of the Cucurbitaccye, quite in-
admissible. There is no trace of sutural lines on the " calyx-tubes"
of any known species of the order. The pentagonal form which it
sometimes assumes is due to the form of the peduncle, which is also
pentagonal, the angles being simply prolonged upon the " calyx- tube,"
which is but a dilatation or expansion of it.

The true calyx, according to M. ISTaudrn, consists but of the five
lobes, which in some species are reduced to imperceptible teeth, and
in others are strongly developed. In certain varieties of Oucurlita
maxima they are entirely wanting, the flower consisting only of
corolla and the staminal fascicle. M. Naudin leaves the question
open as to whether the tubular lower portion, when present, of the
" corolla," may be, in like manner, a modified process of the recep-
tacle, in which case the lobes of the upper portion would answer to
the true petals. The author confirms his previously published views
on the structure of the stamens in Cucurbitaceae, by further examina-
tion of species of Lujfa, in which the two complete and bilocular
stamens are divided to their base. In these plants the filaments do
not alternate with the five corolla-lobes, but are in pairs ; the fila-
ments of each pair being collateral, and inserted upon the same point
of the receptacle. An additional proof that the bilocular stamens of
the Cucurbitaceae are simple, but complete, is the fact that there ex-
ist species having really five stamens, alternating with the corolla-
lobes. This return to the usual symmetry is presented by a plant
not yet clearly determined, but probably belonging to the genus

VOL. I. N. H. E, P

106 BIBLIOGRAPHY.

JEchman&ra, of Arnott. M. JSaudin maintains, that in the great
majority of the CucurbitaceaB, the stamens are three in number, two
being entire and bilocular, and one reduced to a half, and thus uni-
locular. Among the nineteen genera enumerated and described in
detail in this paper, is the new genus Peponopsis, founded upon
female plants (of Mexican ? origin), cultivated in the Jardin des
Plantes. The embarrassed synonymy of the species known to M.
JNaudin in cultivation, is fully worked out, and extended observa-
tions are appended to those of special interest.

Nees ab Esenbeck, Th. Fe. Ltjd. — Genera Plantarum Florae Germa-
nicae iconibus et descriptionibus illustrata. — Fasc. xxxi. Genera
plura Familiaa Caryophyllacearum cum nonnullis Compositorum et
Saxifragacearum (by A. Schnizlein). — Borinse, 1860, with 20 plates.

Neilbeich, August. — TJeber die Vegetations verhaltnisse der aufzulas-
senden Festungswerke Wien's. — Yerhandgln. zool.-bot. Gesellsch.
"Wien. Bd. ix., pp. 167-76.

. An enumeration is given of the species growing upon the bas-
tions, glacis, ramparts, and in the moat ; those which are abundant,
also species of fortuitous and transitory occurrence, &c, are severally
indicated.

Nitschke, Dr. T. — Wachsthumsverhaltnisse des rundblattrigen Son-
nenthaues. — Botanische Zeitung, 1860, pp. 57-61, 65-69.

Drosera rotundifolia propagates itself both by seed, and by the for-
mation of axillary and adventitious buds. The author remarks the
great frequency of the latter mode of multiplication. The adventitious
buds only develope upon leaves, especially upon old ones which are
about to separate, or upon those already fallen, which are kept moist
by surrounding Sphagnum. The author's observations apply prin-
cipally to the development of the internodes, " rosettes," and the
resting winter buds.

TJeber die Reizbarkeit der Blatter von Drosera rotundifolia, L.

—Botanische Zeitung, 1860, pp. 229-34, 237-43, 245-50.

The sensibility to irritation, Dr. Mtschke finds common to the en-
tire surface of the leaves and their glandular appendages. When irri-
tated, both the glands and the lamina itself curve towards the source
of irritation. The degree of susceptibility of the leaf to irritation is
proportionate to the activity of its secretions, and is dependent on
the process of assimilation. Old or undeveloped leaves, which do not
form glandular secretions, do not either manifest irritability. The
author states the leaves to be unaffected by the presence or absence
of light — they have no " sleep."

Oudemans, T. A. — Natuurlijke Historie van Nederland. — De flora van
Nederland, Parts 7, 8, 9. 8vo. Haarlem, 1860.

PALACxr, Db. — Die Schimper'schen Pflanzen aus Abyssinien, nach der
Bestimmung von A. Bichard im tentamen Fl. Abyss, zusammenge-
steUt— Flora, 1860, p. 289-303.

The species are arranged in the sequence of the natural orders,
the distribution numbers being quoted.

PHANEEOGAMIA. 107

Palacky, Dr. — Uebersicht der von Miquel in der Flora Indiag Batavse
bestimmten Cumming'schen Philippinen-Pflanzen. — Flora, 1860,
pp. 446-8.

A list of Miquel's names, with Cuming's distribution numbers.

Pancic, Josef. — Die Flora der Serpentinberge in Mittel-Serbien. — Yer-
bandlgn. zool.-bot. Gesellschi. Wien. Bd. ix., pp. 139-50.

In the enumeration of species, those which have been observed by
the author on the Serpentine only (about 42 species), are marked by
an asterisk.

Paelatoee, Fieeppo. — Flora Italiana, vol. iii., Part 2 (to end of Mono-
cotyledons). 8vo. pp. 161-690. Firenze, 1860.

The Italian species of Iris are distributed by Professor Parlatore
under the genera Iris, Xiphion, Pari., Gynandriris, Pari., Hermo-
daotylus and Thelysia, Salisb.

The genus Bicchia is founded on Habenaria albida, Br., Gen-
naria, on Peristylus cordatus, Ldl., Caldesia, on Alisma pamassi-
folia, L.

The " Flora Italiana" embraces, according to Professor Parla-
tore, 245 genera of Monocotyledons, containing 998 species.

Peegee, A. B. v. — Studien iiber die Deutschen Namen der in Deutsch-
land heimischen pnanzen. — Denkschrift. Kais. Ak. d. Wissench.
Wien. (Math.-Natur. classe). Bd. xviii., Abth. ii., pp. 41-102.

Peesoxnat, Yictoe. — ^"ote sur la station de quelques plantes de la Flore
de Beziers (St. Cere, Lot.). — BulL Soc. Bot. de France, torn, vii., p.
8-10.

Observations sur quelques plantes du Department du Lot. —

Bull. Soc. Bot. de France, torn, vii., pp. 22-4.

Pescatoeea. — Iconographie des orchidees de la collection de M. Pesca-
tore, au chateau de la Celle- Saint- Cloud. Yol. I. 48 coloured
plates. Folio. Bruxelles, 1859-61.

PniLEippi, R. A. — Excursion nach dem Ranco-See in der Provinz Yal-
divia.— Botanische Zeitung, 1860, pp. 305-11, 313-18.

The author describes, at length, the vegetation surrounding the
Lake, and that of the route from San Juan. The species springing
up after the burning of a Yaldivian forest are, besides Funaria hy-
grometrica, of annuals, Oxalis valdkiana, Calandrinia axilliflora, and
Monocosmia corrigioloides. Soon large bushes and under- shrubs, grow-
ing socially, spring up, and form almost impenetrable masses. These
are chiefly made up of Abutilon vitifolium, Solatium Gayanum{Natri
of the Yaldivians), and a species of Baccliaris. A fourth plant
(species of Chusquea), affording a valuable fodder for cattle, some-
times covers large tracts to the exclusion of all others, after the burn-
ing of a forest. After a lapse of, perhaps, thirty to forty years, a
new generation of the former inhabitants of the forest, nursed in the
shade of the foregoing species, prevails, and the temporary occupants
are suppressed.

Flora d. Wiiste Atacama (Chili). 6 plates, vide Philippi's

Beise. 4to. 1860.

108 BIBLIOGRAPHY.

Philippe. — Flore des Pyrenees. Tom. ii. Bagneres de Bigorre, 1860.
4to.

Pokorn-y, A. — Vierter Bericht der Commission znr Erforschung der
Torf moose Oesterreiehs. — Yerhandlgn. zool.-bot. Gesellsch. Wien.,
pp. 81-92. "With 2 plates by Professor Lorenz, showing the exces-
sive multiplication of adventitious roots from the axils and sheathing
bases of leaves below the surface, by which the formation of the turf
is essentially promoted.

Puel, T. — Etudes sur les Divisions Geographiques de la More Franchise.
Part v. — Bull. Soc. Bot. de France, torn, vii., pp. 94-102.

Quetelet, Ad. — Observations des Phenomenes periodiques. Phenome-
nes periodiques Naturels. Kegne vegetale. — Mem. Acad. Sc. Bel-
gique, xxxi.

The observations refer chiefly to the years 1856 and 1857, and
were made at Brussels, Amiens, Ostend, Lierre, Namur, Dijon, and
Venice, by Schramm, Bommer, and others.

The names of (1) about 112 species are given, arranged alpha-
betically, with the periods of foliation ; (2) of 230-40 species,
with the time of flowering; (3) of 69 species, with period of fruit-
ing ; and (4) of 53 species, with time of defoliation. There are also
tables of observations made on the 21st March and 21st October, at
the same stations, on the state of foliation, flowering, &c, of certain
species. M. de Selys-Longchamps observes, in a note to the Obser-
vations for 1857, that the extraordinary temperature of 1857 re-
tarded the fall of leaves. He states, if the number of trees which
retained all their foliage be added to those which retained three-
fourths (40 and 15) the total but slightly exceeds that of 1855
(26 and 27), but a great difference is shown in the proportion of the
two numbers ; 1857 presenting 40 species retaining all their leaves,
1855 but 26.

Kalwenhoff, ~N, W. P. — De anatomische zamenstelling der Schors
van Robinia pseudo-acacia, in hare ojDvolgende ontwikkelings-toes-
tanden, — Nederl. Kruidk. Archief. vijfde Deel., pp. 1-28.

Kegel, E. — Index Seminum Horti. Bot. Imp. Petropolitani, — Ann. des
Nat. (Bot,). Ser. iv., torn, xii., pp. 373-80.

Astemon, Kgl., a new genus of Labiataa, stated to be near Cole-
brookia, Sin., is founded on a plant raised from seed sent by Cuming
from Bolivia.

Keichenbach, L., and H. G. — Icones Florae Germanicaa et Helvetiae. —
Tom. xix., Dec, 16-19. Lipsiae.

In continuation of the genus Hieracium.

Keissek, S. — Yegetations-Geschichte des Kohres an der Donau in Oes-
terreich und Ungarn. — Yerhandlgn. zool.-bot. Gesellsch. Wien.,
Bd. ix., pp. 55-74.

The author remarks the extraordinary tenacity with which the
Keed (Phragm/'tes communis) maintains itself abundantly on the
Danube, notwithstanding the apparently unfavourable circumstances
of flood, shifting river-bed, &c.

PHANEBOGAMIA. 109

The physiognomy of the vegetation with which the Reed is asso-
ciated— osiers, willows, typlta, scirpus, sedges, tlristlcs, &c. — is dis-
cussed at length.
Rossmann, Julius. — Ueber die Bezeichnungen fur Phanerogamen und
Kryptogamen. — Oberhessisch. Gesell. jNatur-und Heilkunde, Achter
Berieht., pp. 23-4.

Professor llossmann objects to the terms Phanerogamia and Cryp-
togamia as applied to flowering and flowerless plants, inasmuch
as some of the so-called Cryptogams are, in fact, as to their repro-
ductive processes, more Phanerogamousothan any bearing flowers.
He proposes to substitute Anthophyta and Sporophyta. The Pro-
fessor has also a controversy with generic and specific names in-
volving contradiction or nonsense, as in the case of Sagina apetala,
Potentilla sterilis, and even Gypsopliila, the species of which are not
all " chalk-loving."

Die Lostrennung der Blumenkrone bei den Rhinanthaceen.-

Botanische Zeituug, 1860, p. 217.

The lower membranous portion of the corolla-tube divides trans-
versely, leaving a small sheathing ring around the ovary.

Rostkup, E. — Om Vegetationen i den udtorrede " Lerso" ved Kjoben-
havn. — Yidensk. Meddels. Nat. For. KjGbn., 1859.

The Ler or Bor was a small lake about two English miles from
Copenhagen, which formerly served for the supply of water to the
city. In the spring of 1852 it was commenced draining — an opera-
tion which was almost completed when again visited by the author
in the autumn of the same year. He was there again in 1854, and
in 1857 and 1858 made repeated herborisations, and carefully col-
lected all the native vegetation which had sprung up, amounting to
175 species, including 19 of Salix.

One of the most remarkable plants observed was the Senecio
(Cineraria) paluntris, of which, in 1852, when the lake was half
drained, there were only a few scattered individuals. In 1854 the
whole bed of the lake was yellow with its blossoms ; but in 1857 and
1858 it had so far disappeared, that Mr. Rostrup only succeeded in
finding a single specimen. This recalls a similar circumstance ob-
served in Holland in 1853, when the large portion of the lake of
Haarlem, which had been drained off the previous summer, was a
sheet of yellow with the blossoms of the same Senecio, which, we
understand, has since nearly disappeared. Rumex maritimus, and
Blitum glancum, andrubriuu, which were in the greatest abundance
in the drained parts of Lake Ler, in the autumn of the first year,
1852, had also almost disappeared in 1857 and 1858. The paper
concludes with some speculations on the probable origin of the pre-
sent vegetation.

Sachs, Jul. — Physiologische Mittheilungen verschiedenen Inhaltes. —
Botanische Zeitung, 1860, pp. 113-9, 121-6. 1. Cultivation of
land plants under water. 2. Marble dissolved by the roots of maize.
3. The transpiration of plants. 4. Destruction of plants by cold at

110 BIBLIOGRAPHY.

temperatures above zero. 5. The exudation of water contained in
wood.
Sagot, P. — Etudes sur la vegetation des Plantes potageres d' Europe a
la Guyane Franchise. — Journ. Soc. Imp. et Centr. d'Horticult, 1860,
torn. vi. 8vo. 22 pages.

In Guiana, with a mean annual temperature of 27° C, and con-
trasting dry and wet seasons, many of the culinary vegetables of the
north cannot be grown at all, while others are uncertain or incom-
plete in their growth, and none acquire their full and natural deve-
lopment. M. Sagot remarks the short period which seeds appear to
retain their vitality in Guiana, compared with the length of time they
may be kept in Europe unimpaired. The seeds of the melon or hari-
cot, which in France may be kept six or eight years, do not germi-
nate after five or six months. The behaviour of each of the most
common kitchen plants, also of several ornamental garden flowers
under the climate of Guiana, is separately detailed.

The cabbage, radish, mustard, cress, haricots (with care), water
melons, the aubergine (Solatium melongena), chives (ciboules), are
successfully and usefully cultivated ; while turnips, peas and beans,
lentils, cicer, potatoes, tomatoes, asparagus, and the cereals, either
altogether refuse to grow, or afford no useful produce. Compara-
tive observations are appended upon the influence of equatorial cli-
mate upon man, domestic animals, and plants, brought from cool la-
titudes. In the opinion of the author, plants submit to climatal
change much less readily than man, and man somewhat less so than
most introduced animals.

Note on Useful woods of French Guiana. — Bull. Soc. Bot. de

France, torn, vii., pp. 16-7.

The great proportion of hard and coloured woods belong to Le-
guminosae, especially to the tribes Dalbergiese and Csesalpiniese.
The valuable cabinet wood "Boco" is afforded by MahaUia guia-
nensis, Bth. ; "Bagot," by Cynometra hostmanniana, Tul. ; Ga'iac
(used for the " gorges" of pullies), by a species of Dipteryx. " L'an-
gelique de Cayenne," celebrated for its utility in marine construc-
tions, is Dicorem'a guianensis, Bth.

Sanio, Karl. — Einige Beobachtungen liber den Bau des Holzes — Bota-
nische Zeitung, 1860, pp. 193-8, 201-4, 209-17, with one plate.

1. On the structure of the pits of cell-walls and inter-cellular
cavities, 2. The tertiary thickening layer of wood-cells. 3. On
Lignine (Holzstoff). 4. On tannin in wood ; with observations on
tannin generally.

Schacht, H. — Der Baum. Studien ub. Bau u. Leben der hoheren Ge-
wachse. 2nd edition. 575 engravings, 227 woodcuts. Berlin, 1860.

Schlechtexdal, D. F. L. vox. — Ueber eine vielnamige Gartenpflanze.
—Botanische Zeitung, 1860, pp. 289-90.

This paper relates to Stachys germamca, and its immediate allies.

Yon anderen Stachysarten. — Botanische Zeitung, pp. 293-5,

297-9, 301-3. (To be continued).

PHANEROGAMIC. Ill

This paper embraces observations upon the various forms, both
wild and in cultivation, their synonymy, &c, with remarks on the
variability of the species.

Sciiketzlein, A. — Iconographia Familiarum Naturaliuni Kegni Vege-
tabilis. — Heft. xiv. Bonn.

This part contains detailed descriptions of about twenty natural
orders or sub-orders, in Latin and German, with figures and elabo-
rate dissections. The illustrations of the orders are not issued in their
natural sequence, but indiscriminately, as the author finds material.

Einige merkwiirdige Formen von Ovula bei Monocotylen . —

Flora, 1860, pp. 529-32. These remarks apply to the ovules of
Astelia Banhsii and Conostylis dealbata.

In the former the anatropous ovules are provided with a long,
curved funicle, which eventually becomes bent at an angle over the
micropyle ; opposite to this point a plait or fold is developed, which
covers a considerable portion of the outer side of the ovule. In Co-
nostylis, Sehnitzlein finds the ovules to be orthotropous, with two
well-marked integuments. The cells of the outer coat are transverse
to the axis of the ovule, and give it a wrinkled aspect. It finally
assumes a remarkable appearance, from resting upon a bulbous
raised base, as though two ovules were superimposed with a constric-
tion between them. The thickened funicle or support is shorter than
the ovule.

Schott, H. G. — Prodromus Systematis Aroidearum. Vindobonae, 1860.
8vo. 602 pages.

This work comprises descriptions of 960 species, referred to 107
genera, of which 70 have been proposed by the author himself in his
various publications.

Schenk, Peof. — Beobachtungen wahrend der Sonnenfinsterniss am 18
Juli, 1860, angestellt in dem botanischen Garten zu "Wurtzburg. —
Botanische Zeitung, 1860, pp. 277-8.

In plants out of doors an alteration in the position of the leaf was
observed in species of Edwardsia, Sophora, Colutea, Caragana, Lu-
pinus, Vicia, Oxalis, &c. Several others under glass, chiefly Legu-
minosse and Oxalideae, distinctly manifested the phenomena of
" sleep." None of the expanded flowers which were observed (JVt'co-
tiana, Mirabilis, (Enothera), showed any alteration with the dimi-
nished light.

Schultz, C. H. (Bipoxt). — TJeber Loricaria thyoides. — Bonplandia viii.,
Jahrg. pp. 258-60.

TJeber die Gattung Ormenis, Cass. — Flora, 1860, pp. 433-4. —

The geographical distribution of the several species is given.

Soweeby, J. E. — British Wild Flowers : Described, with an Introduc-
tion and a Key to the Natural Orders, by C. P. Johnson. 8vo.
London, 1860.

Senft, De. — Praktische Beobachtungen iiber das Auftreten der Grami-
neen im Gebiete der Walder.— Flora, 1860, pp. 305-14, 321-30,
337-45.

112 BIBLIOGRAPHY.

Spruce, Richard. — On the mode of branching of some Amazon trees. —
Journ. Linn. Soc. (Bot.), vol. v., pp. 3-14.

Mr. Spruce analyses the "habit" presented by certain natural
orders, genera, and by some individual species, which engaged his at-
tention during his lengthened sojourn in Northern Brazil. From the
disposition of the branches in the Myristicaceae, in horizontal whorls
of five (or three), the lowest and oldest branches being the largest,
a parabolic outline results, which, especially in the case of some
nutmeg trees near the mouth of the llio Negro, was very striking.
Monimiaceae agree generally in their mode of branching with the
allied Myristicaceae. In Anonaceae, with a similar habit, the branches
are solitary, and not whorlod. The species in which they spread ho-
rizontally resemble the nutmegs, though in some Xylopieae the out-
line is more pyramidal. In Lauraceae there is often a tendency to
have the branches verticillate ; but as they ascend at various angles,
they lack the symmetrica] contour of the foregoing. Species of
Eriodendron are characterised by a dome-shaped crown. Many Ti-
liaceae, with horizontal, pinnate branches, offer a close resemblance
to Anonaceae. Mr. Spruce remarks the infrequenoy of solitary and
verticillate branching in the same order ; Diospyros is the only in-
stance in which he has found both to coexist in the same genus. In
certain cymosely branching Rubiaceae, especially in the "mulatto
tree" {Enhjlista spruceana, Bth.), the outline of the tree approaches
to obconical or obpyramidal. Some Cinchoneae and the Papaws, the
primary stem of which constantly elongates at the apex, emitting
only annual lateral branches, present a remarkable, palmiform ap-
pearance. Helta Azedaraclt, introduced, and now widely spread in
Brazil, assumes a similar aspect — it is either unbranched, or the few
branches given off from its lower axils elongate like the primary
stem, bearing clusters of leaves and flowers at the apex. On the
Amazon this tree flowers all the year round. Mr. Spruce's paper
further contains observations on the connexion subsisting between
cladotaxis, the nature of the inflorescence, &c, and the physiognomy
of species.

Sttjr, DiojStts. — Beitrage zu einer Monographic des genus Astrantia. —
Wien, 1860, 58 p., with 1 map, showing the distribution of species.
(Y. Ber).

Tchihatchepp, P. de. — Asie Mineure ; Description physique, statistique,
et archeologique de cette contree. 3epartie, Botanique. Paris. 1860.
2 vols. 8vo. Atlas, 4to.

Tenore, M.— Indicis Seminum Hort. Reg. Bot. Neapolitani adnota-
tiones. — Ann. Sc. Nat. (Bot.). Ser. iv., torn, xii., p. 78.

Ttmbal-Lagrave, E., and H. Loret, — L'Herbier de Marchand et Lapey-
rouse. — Bull. Soc. Bot. de France, torn. vii„ pp.-17-22, 66-72.

. Ed. — Des variations que presentences especesdu genre Orchis,

et principalement /' Orchis Tenor eana, Guss. With woodcuts. — Bull.
Soc. Bot. de Erance, torn, vii., pp. 109-17.

These variations chiefly apply to the lobation and colour of the

PUAXEROGAMIA. 113

labellum. Differences presented by the spur, its relative length, &c,
are but slight in 0. Tenor eana ; in some other species, as 0. iiiorio,
the spur is very variable in form. The author considers, with Koch,
Orchis tridentata, Scop., and 0. variegata, All., to be specifically
identical. 0. Tenoreana, Gu^s., he regards as distinct.
Tomaschek, A. — Ueber die Eutwickehrngsiahigkeit der Bliithenkritzchen
von Cor gifts avellana, L. — Verhdlgn. K. X. Z.-B. Gesollsehft. in
Wien. Bd. ix., pp. 3-6.

Nachtrag zur Phanerogamen-Flora Cylli's. — lb. Bd. ix., pp.

35-42.

Zur Flora der Uingebung Lembergs. — lb. Bd. ix., pp. 43-54.

Considerations upon the relations of the vegetation to the cha-
racter of the soil, and to meteorological conditions.

Treviraxtjs, L C. — TJeber den Wechsel des Griinen und Rothen in
der Lebensaften belebter Korper. — Eot. Zeit. 1860, pp. 281-8.

The author's observations apply, in the vegetable kingdom,
chiefly to the red coloration of Alga3, Lichens, and autumnal leaves.

Uloth, W. — Beitrage zur Physiologie der Cuscuteen. With 2 plates. —
Flora, 1860, pp. 257-68, 273-81.

The structure of the seed, its germination, the connexion between
the parasite and its prey, &c, are minutely described. The author
finds the embryo in Cuscuta compact a, vulgivaga, chilensis, and Ce-
phalanti (referred by him to Cuscutina of Pfeiffer), to bear minute
scale-like organs on its summit.

The active growth and increase of the parasite commences with
the formation of vascular tissue in the first cord of tissue penetrating
the epidermal layers of its prey. When these " suckers" penetrate
any part of the parasite itself, as frequently occurs, no formation of
vessels takes place. M. Chatin's account (Anat. Comp. des Veget.,
Livr. iii.) of the parasitism of Cuscuta, and his elaborate drawings,
appear to be unknown to the author.

Tornabene, F. — Monografia delle specie di Asparagus spontanee sulT
Etna. 4to. Catania. 6 plates.

Sopra un nuovo albero indigeno sull' Etna del genere Celt is. —

Catania. 4to.

Walpers. — Annales Botanices Systematica?. Tom. v., Fasc. vi. From
Taxinese to end of Monocotyledons ; with Index to the volume.

Wawra, H. and J. Peyritsch. — Sertum Benguelense. Aufzahlung
und Beschreibung der auf der Expeditionsfahrt Sr. M. Corvette
" Carolina" an der Kuste von Benguela von Dr. H. Wawra gesam-
melten Pflanzen. Wien, 1860. (Wien Ber. Vol. xxxviii.) 46 pp'.
The " Carolina" touched at Benguela on the return voyage from
the Cape, remaining but six days (from 21st to 28th January). On
two excursions, made under very unfavourable circumstances, Dr.
W. collected 53 species, of which he finds about half to be unde-
scribed. A short account of the town of Benguela, the vegetation of
its neighbourhood, and of the Benguelese, is prefixed to the list of
species met with. This latter includes diagnoses and lengthened

VOL. I — N. H. R. Q

114 BIBLIOGRAPHY

descriptions of 24 novelties, one of which is regarded by M.
Peyritsch as the type of a new Passifloreous genus (Basananthe,
Peyr.), related to Paschanthus, Burch., and Acharia, Thg.

Weddell. — Chloris Andina. Essai d'une Flore de la Begion Alpine des
Cordilleres de l'Amerique dn Sud. Vol. ii., pts. 12 and 13, with
ten plates; completing Scrophulariaceae, Gesneriacese, Bignonia-
ceae, Labiatae, Lenttibulariacea3, Plantaginaceae, MyrsinaceaB, Erica-
cea3, Bhamnaceae.

Weiss, W. — Beobachtungen iiber den Pilanzenschlaf mit Paicksicht auf
die letze Sonnenfinsterniss. — Bot. Zeit. pp. 321-4. The fol-
lowing species were carefully observed for some days prior to
the eclipse, and the hours noted at which their c< sleep" commenced,
and reached its maximum: — Mimosa pudica and scnsitiva, Gram-
manthes gentianoides, Arnicia zygomeris, Cccsalpinia s^p'aria,
Acacia juliorissin, and Porliera hygrometrica. The author de-
tails the result of observations during the eclipse on Arnicia and
Grammanthes, which he selected as showing the greatest susceptibi-
lity to light. The leaves of the Arnicia under glass with the com-
mencement of the eclipse began to droop, and at the maximum of
darkness were half reilexed: at the end of the eclipse, ihey were
again normally expanded. The flowers of Grammanthes also, under
glass, which were expanded at the beginning of the eclipse, were
all closed about the middle. At the end, most of the flowers at-
tempted to open, though with but partial success. The author's
numerous thennometrical observations lead him to refer the sleep-
phenomena of sensitive plants to the direct thermal influence of the
solar rays.

Wexdland, H Bemerkungen iiber einige Palmengattungen Ameri-

kas. Bonplandia viii., Jahrg., pp. 100-106, 115-119. The new
genera proposed are Iriartella, founded on Iriartea setigera of Mar-
tius ; Catohlastus, on two lew Grenada species, also previously re-
ferred to Iriartea; and' Bictocary um, based on specimens of fruit
only, collected by Wagner in N. Grenada.

Willkomm, M. — Bemerkungen iiber kritische Pnanzen der Mediterran-
flora. Bot. Zeit. 1860. pp. 129-32. The author establishes a new
edition of his genus Costia upon three species referred to Iris, I
scorpioides, Besf., I. pcrsica, L., 8f I caucausica, M. B.

Woeonin, M. — Ueber den Bau des Stammes von Calycanthus. Bot.
Zeit. 1860. pp. 177-82. With a plate. Referring to the oc-
currence of woody bundles (four in number), with vessels in the
cortical region, and tlieir relation to the nodes, leaves, &c.

Wyjdler, H. — Kleinere Beitrage zur Kenntniss einheimischer Ge-
wachse. Flora. 1860. pp. 353-366; 371-400; 419-432; 435-
445; 457-461; 471-480; 490-510; 513-520; 532-544.

In continuation of previously published communications relating
chiefly to phyllotaxis, sprout formation and axial relations, &c.
The following orders are discussed: — Cucurbitaceae, Portulacese,
Paronychie, Crassulaeeae, Grossularieae, Saxifrageae, Umbelliferae,

CRYPTOGAMIA. 11,1

Araliacese, Cornea?, Loranthacese, Caprifoliaceae, Stellataa, Yalerian-
aceoe, Dipsaceaa, Composite.

XII. — Criptogamia.
1. Ferns (Fiiices).

Bolle. — Notice surl'asplenium Seelosii Leybold par M. Charles Bolle. —
Bulletin de la Societe Botanique de France, torn, vii., pp. 72-8, and
pp. 82-86.

This paper contains the diagnosis and synonymy of Asplenium
Seelosii, together with an account of its discovery and geogra-
phical distribution, a full description of the plant, and a few re-
marks on its culture. It is peculiar to the Alps between the Tyrol
and Yenetia.

Hetjflee. — Die Yerbreitung von Asplenium fissum Kit. mit einer Karte,
von Ludwig R. v Heufler, Yerhandlungen der kaiserlich-koniglichen
Zoologisch-botanischen Gesellschaft in VVien Bandrx., p. 309.

Hooker. — Species Filicum Descriptions of all known Ferns, by Sir

William Jackson Hooker, F. R. S., &c. — Yol. iii., pts. 2, 3, and 4,
completing the vol., with plates clxi-ccx.

These parts include the following genera : Sadleria, Woodwardia,
Doodia, Asplenium, Allantodia and Actinopteris, with Index. —
London, Tamplin.

Mettenius. — Ueber Seitenknospen bei Farnen; par M. G. Mettenius
(abhandl. d. Konigl. Sachs. Gesellschaft der Wissenchaft zu Leipzig,
vol. vii., 1860, pp. 610-628). Published in a separate pamphlet.

Mooee. — Index Filicum. — A synopsis, with characters, of the genera,
and an enumeration of the species of Ferns, with synonyms, refe-
rences, &c, &c, by Thomas Moore, F. L. S., F. H. S., parts 7, 8,
and 9. London, Tamplin.

These parts contain figures illustrating the genera Polybotrya,
Rhipidopteris, Elaphoglossum, Lomariopsis, Stenochlsena, Olfersia,
Soromanes, Neurocallis, Hymenodium, Stenosemia, Paacilopteris,
Anapausia, Acrostichum, Photinopteris, Platycerium, Dryostachyum,
Jenkinsia, Lomaria, Blechnum, Blechnidium, Salpichlama, Sadleria,
Monogramma, Diclidopteris, Pleurogramma, Xiphopteris, Hynieno-
lepis, Gymnopteris, Scoliosorus, Holcosorus, Taenitis, Schizolepton,
Lomogramma, Drymoglossum, Diblemma, Paragramma, Dicrano-
glossum, and Taeniopsis.

Notice of the discovery of Lastrea remota in England, by Thomas

Moore, Esq., F. L. S., F. H. S., Journ. of the Proc. of the Linnaean
Society (Botany), vol. iv., p. 192.

Milde, J. — Gefass-Cryptogamen in Schlesien. 25 plates. 4to. Bonn.
1859.

Reickardt Asplennim Heufleri eine Hybride zwischen Asplenium

116 BIBLIOGRAPHY.

germanicum, Weis, und A. Trichomanes L. beschrieben von H. W.
Reichardt. mit eiuer Tafel. Verhandlungen der kaiserlich-konig-
lichen Zoologisch-Botanischen Gesellschaft in Wien Band ix., p.
93.

2. Mosses {Muse I).

Arnold, E. — ITeber die Laub-moose des Frankischen Jura. Regensburg

Flora, 1860, p. 401-4O5.
Hampe. — Was sind Laubmoose, und wie ist deren systematiscbe
Eintheilung iibersichtlich und verstiindlich. Yon Ernst Hampe. —
Botanische Zeitung, am 4 Mai, 1860.

The following arrangement is proposed by the author : —
Principium potissimum classification is est : Calyptra 1 Muscis
frondosis propria.

A. Calyptra irregularites fmctu maturo disrupta, inferior pars ad
basin thecae remanens. — Diarrhagoniitria. (Musci spurii).

B. Calyptra basi jam juventute tota libera regulariter circum-
scissa Stegomitria. (Musci genuini).

A. Theca omnino clausa. — Cleistocarpi.

B. Theca operculata. — Stegocarpi.

I. Theca in caule primario apicalis. — Acrocarpi.

II. Theca in caule secundario apicalis. — Cladocarpi.

III. Theca radicalis vel lateralis pleurocarpis simillima sed struc-
tura interna acrocarporum — Rhizocarpi.

IV. Theca subsessilis vel longe stipitata in caule secundario late-
ralis, gemma fructifera sessilis conspicua : folii structura interna tri-
folici ordine cellulorum prosenchymaticarum. — Pleurocarpi.

V. Theca inter folia equitantia inserta. — Entophyllocarpi.

VI. Theca in pagina inferiore caulis inter tegumenta propria in-
serta.— Hymenophyllocarpi.

Heueler. — Ueber das wahre Hypnum polymorphum Hedwig's, von
Ludwig R. v. Heufler. Verhandlungen der kaiserlich-koniglichen
Zoologisch-botauischen Gesellschaft in Wien, Band ix., p. 383.

Jcratzka. — Zur Moosnora Oesterreichs, i., ii., iii., von J. Juratzka.
Verhandlungen der kaiserlich-koniglichen Zoologisch-botanischen
Gesellschaft in Wien, Band ix., pp. 97, 313.

Kltnograff. — Zur Sexu.alitat der Moose, von Dr. H. von Klinggraff.
Botanische Zeitung, 26th Oct., 1 860. The author for eight years had
observed a species of Hypnum growing in large quantities, half- im-
mersed in pools of peaty water. In seven years he found only about
ten capsules, and was led to consider the moss dioecious. In August,
1859, the author found flowers of each sex growing on different
plants, the male and female plants being at a distance from one an-
other. He therefore took male plants, with fully- developed anthe-
ridia ; and selecting six pools which contained only female plants, he
placed male plants in two of them. In the following June he found
in the two pools into which the male plants had been introduced,
upwards of 100 fully-developed capsules; whilst the remaining four

CKTrTOGAMIA. 117

pools, into which no male plants had been introduced, contained not

a single fruit.

The paper also contains some remarks on the different periods of

flowering and fructification of a number of different species of mosses.
Likdberg, S. 0. — Den Nordiska Moss-vegetationen. OlVers. Stockh.,

1859.
Loeextz, P. G. — Beitriige zur Biologie und Geographic der Laubmocse.

4 to. Miinchen.
Milde. — Ueber die Moos-Vegetation der Torfsiimpfe Schlesltns. von

Dr. J. Milde. Botanische Zeitung, 16ih March, 1860.
Ueber Bryuni (Cladodium) fallax Milde, von Dr. J". Milde. Bo-
tanische Zeitung, 6th April, 1860.

Hypnum Mildeanum W. Ph. Schpr. in liter., beschiieben von

Dr. J. Milde. Botanische Zeituug, 25 Mai, 1860.
Mu'llek, Ph. J. — Einige kleine NachtrJige zu den Beit1 agen zu Ch.
Giimbel's Moosflora d. Pfalz. Regensburg Flora, 1860, pp. 81,
83.
Muleee. — Australian Musci. Linnaea xiv. 623.
Neevaxdee. — Bidrag til Findland's Bryologi Job. H. Emmanuel Ner-

vander. Helsingfors, 1859. 8vo. 95 pages.
Rabexhoest.— Bryolheca Europaea. Die Laubmoose Europa's unler
mitwirkung mehrerer Freunde der Botanik ges. u. herausg. v. Dr. L.
Rabenhorst. Fasc. vi., n. 251-300. Dresden, 1859. D ruck von
C. Heinrich. 4.

A list of the species published in this fascicle is given in the "Bo-
tanische Zeitung" for Feb. 10, 1860.
Schtmpee — Synopsis Muscorum Europseorum prsemissa introductione
de elementis bryologicis tractante. Scripsit W. Ph. Sehimper.
Stuttgartiae. E. Schweizerbart.

The work is written in Latin, and consists of an introduction, fol-
lowed by a systematic arrangement.

The Introduction contains the following matters: — The first part
relates to the organography and morphology of Mosses, including
sections relating to — 1 . Their different modes of propagation; 2. Their
vegetative organs; 3. Their mode of generation, with accounts of
their male and female flowers and sexual organs ; 4. Their fructifi-
cation, i. e. the primary origin of the fruit, the evolution of the cap-
sule, the sporangium, and the evolution of the spores ; and, 5. The
perfect fruit and its constituent parts, including the perfect spores.

The second part contains chapters relating to — 1. The mode of life
of mosses; 2. The chemical and physical nature of their places of
growth, and the effect of their variety in regulating the distribution
of mosses on the surface of the earth ; 3. The geographical distribu-
tion of mosses in Europe; 4. Their distribution with regard to altitude.

The fifth chapter (wrongly headed cap. iv.) contains certain special
bryological floras.

The third part of the work sets out the classification of European
mosses proposed by Hedwig, the classification of Bridel in his Bryo-

118 BIBLIOGRAPHY.

logia Universa, of Miiller in his Synopsis, and the author's own
system.

Added to the above details, are Tables showing the species which
are found in different zones in different regions.

The systematic portion of the work contains a detailed description
of each species, accompanied by synonyms and explanatory remarks.

There are eight plates, showing in detail the characters of all the
genera, and also a map, exhibiting the zones of altitude.
Schimper. — Icones morphological atqua? organographies introductionem
synopsi muscorum Europaeoruni prsemissum illustrantes ad naturam
vivam delineavit et explicavit "W". Ph. Schimper. Tabula? lapidi
incisae xi. Stuttgartise Sumptibus Librarise E. Schweizerbart. 1860.

This is an atlas of eleven plates, originally intended by the author
(together with other figures) to form part of an introduction to
the study of mosses generally. The plates are now published in ad-
vance of the intended elementary work, with a view of illustrating
the introductory portion of the " Synopsis Muscorum."
Spruce. — Mosses of the Amazon and Andes. By Richard Spruce, Esq.
Journ. of Proc. of the LinnaBan Society (Botany), vol. v., p. 45.

3. — Liverworts (Hepaticce).

Mitten. — Hepaticse India? orientalis. An enumeration of the Hepatica?

of the East Indies, by William Mitten, Esq., A. L. S. — Journ. of the

Proc. of the Linnajan Society (Botany), vol. v., p. 89.
Rabenhorst Hepatica? Europaege. Die Lebermoose Europa's unter

Mitwirkung mehrerer nahmhafter Botaniker, ges. u. herausg. v.

Dr. L. Rabenhorst. Dec. 13, u. 14, Dresden, 1860. 8vo.

The species published in these Decads are set out in Botanische

Zeitung, 18 Mai, 1860.

4. — Lichens.

Arnold, F. — Die Lichenen des Frankischen Jura. Enumeration, with
brief observations on the size of spores, &c. Regensburg Flora, 1 860,
pp. 66-80.

Fries, T. M Monographia Stereocaulorum et Pilophorum. 4 plates.

4to. Upsala, 1858.

Haszlinszey. — Beitrage zur Kenntniss der Karpathen-Flora von Frie-
drich Haszlinszky. Flechten (Lichens). Verhandlungen der kaiser-
lich-koniglichen zoologisch-botanischen Gesellschaft in Wien, Band
ix., p. 7.

Koerber Parerga lichenologica. Ergiinzungen zu Systema Lichenum

Germanicse, von Dr. Gr. "W. Koerber. Erste Lieferung Breslau, Ver-
lag, von Edward Trewendt, 1859. Zweite Lieferung, 1860.

This work, which is intended to be completed in three parts, has
for its object to supply any omissions (as to diagnosis, synonyms,
&c.) affecting the species described in the author's " Systema," and

CBTPT0GA2BXA.. 119

also to supply descriptions of the species new to Germany or to sci-
ence which have occurred since the publication of; he latter work.
.Nylandek. — Synopsis niethodica Lichenum omnium hueusque uugnito-
rum praemissa introductiune lingua gallica trad at a ; ocripsit William
Nylauder. 1st fascicle, Paris, 1858. 2nd iascicle, Paris, 1860.

The first fascicle consists of two parts — one general, the other
descriptive. The first part, written in French, contains an account
of the organisation, clarification, and distribution of Lichens. The
eleven chapters of which it is composed, relate to the following mat-
ters : —

1. Definition of Lichens. Lichens (says M. Tsylander) are cel-
lular plants; their fructification is borne upon a thallus furnished
with gonidia, and has ahymenium containing an amyloid gelatinous
substance. They are characterized by a slow and intermittent
growth, dependent upon the state of humidity of the atmosphere ;
and, for the most part, they derive their nourishment from the at-
mosphere. They differ further from fungi in the fact of their hyme-
nium usually assuming a blue or vinous red colour under iodine.

2. The constituent parts of Lichens — viz., the iJicdlus, or vegeta-
tive part; the apotheeia, or thccasporous fruit; the spermogonia,
which have been supposed to represent male organs; and iuepycnidia,
the nature of which is obscure.

3. The thallus. This assumes four principal forms — the folia-
ceous, the fruticulose, the crustaceous, and the hypophleodal thallus,
which lies concealed under the epidermis of trees, or between the
fibres of the wood. The thallus is usually stratified, more rarely
formed of a homogeneous tissue. The stratified thallus has three or
four layers — the cortical, the g'midial, the medullary, and frequently
a hypothalline layer, which sometimes forms a hypothallus, and
sometimes rootlets or root-like fibrils. Homogeneous thalli are only
met with in the lower Lichens.

4. Apothecia. These form sometimes a disc, sometimes a rounded
nucleus. They consist of the combination of three layers, viz., the hypo-
thecium,orperithecium, or conceptacle, which corresponds to the hypo-
thallus ; 2, the thecium, which is analogous to the gonidio-medullary
layer of the thallus, and which is formed of a mass of paraphyses and
thecse ; 3, the epithecium, corresponding to the epithallus, or cortex ;
4, the spermogonia ; these are generally very small, round, or ob-
long nucleiform organisms, sometimes lodged in particular tubercles,
but more frequently immersed in the superficial layers of the thal-
lus, and having the appearance of small papillary elevations, or sim-
ple ostioles, sometimes black or brownish, sometimes of the same
colour as the thallus itself. They are composed of a conceptacle,
quite analogous to that of the apothecia — of sterigmata, which are
cellules with delicate walls, usually elongated, which grow on the
internal surface of the conceptacle, and which are erect and simple,
or slightly branched — and, lastly, of spermatia, borne by the sterig-
mata, and which are very minute acicular, ellipsoid, or oblong bodies,

120 BIBLIOGRAPHY.

constituting (the author considers), with great probability, the male
organs of the Lichens. 5, the pycnidia, which Tulasne considers
to be supplementary sporiferous organs, which resemble the sper-
mogonia in form, in their eoncepiaclcs, and in the mode of insertion
of the organs called slylospores, which they produce, but which latter
are less numerous than the spermatia, of a much larger size, and
capable of germination.

The seventh chapter contains a recapitulation of the anatomical
elements of Lichens ; the eighth chapter treats of their chemical
properties and uses; the ninth, of their specific characters; and the
tenth, of their classification.

M. Nylander divides the Lichens into three families : the Col-
lemacei, the Myriangiacei, and the Lichenacei. The Collemacei are
distinguished by their heavy, dark colour, and by the structure of
their thallus, which is rarely cellular, and is usually gelatinous, contain-
ing gonimic granules, scattered or in rows. The Myriangiacei com-
prise only two species of the genus Myriangium. They resemble the
Collemacei in their external form and colour, but in their thalline
tissue and thalamial tissue are nearer the Lichenacei: Their spheroidal
thecse are always arranged irregularly, and are sometimes superposed
in two or three rows. The Lichenacei are divided into six series : 1.
theEpiconiodei, in which the spores, when they have escaped from the
thecaB, accumulate like powder on the surface of thehymenium ; 2, the
Cladoiiiodei, or Lichens with a stipitiform thallus, usually fruticulose,
and furnished with squamules or folioles, with lecideine and convex
apothecia (apothecia cephaloidea) ; 3, the Ramalodei, or Lichens with a
fruticulose thallus, compressed or cylindrical, without squamules, and
with fruit generally lecanorine and flat ; 4, the Phyllodei, or Lichens
with a foliaceous thallus, and usually lecanorine apothecia, with jointed
sterigmata ; 5, the Placodei, or Lichens with a crustaceous thallus
and lecanorine lecideine, or lirelliform apothecia ; 6, the Pyrenodece,
or Lichens with a peltate thallus or a crustaceous thallus, sometimes
without any thallus, with pyrenocarpous apothecia, either immersed
in the thallus, or more or less naked. A table of the families, series,
tribes, and genera, is added.

The eleventh chapter treats of the geographical distribution of
Lichens. After this follows the systematic portion of the work,
written in Latin, containing descriptions and synonyms of species,
with indications of their geographical distribution.

The two fascicles already published include the Collemacei and
the Myriangiacei, and the first four series of the Lichenacei, with the
exception of the tribes Gyrophorei and Pyxinei, which, with the
series Placodei, which includes the tribes Lecanorei, Lecidinei,
Xylographidei, and Graphidei, are to be dealt with in the forthcoming
concluding parts.

There are eight plates accompanying the two fascicles already
published, giving illustrations of the genera, and of a certain number
of species.

THE

NATURAL HISTORY REVIEW:

QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF BIOLOGICAL SCIENCE.
$jLebietos.

XIII. — A History of Infusoria, including the Desmidiace^; and
Diatomace^:, British and Foreign. By Andrew Pritchard, Esq.,
M. E I. Fourth edition. Enlarged and revised by J. T. Arlidge,
M. B., B. A. Lond. ; W. Archer, Esq. ; J. Ealfs, M. B, C. S. L. ; W.
C. Williamson, Esq., E. R. S. ; and the Author. Illustrated by Forty
Plates. London: "Whittaker and Co., Ave Maria-lane. 1861.

When to the means already within his reach for the investigation of
living nature, man's intelligence first led him to add a new instru-
ment, the Microscope, who could have foretold the rich rewards that
awaited him in the hitherto unseen world of minute organization, or
the glimpses, which, by its aid, he has since been enabled to obtain, of
marvels each day occurring within the busy house of life ?

The varied knowledge so gained admits, to some extent, of being
arranged under two principal heads ; namely, histology in general, and
the study of the entire structure of those numerous beings, whose size
is such as to preclude the possibility of their being discriminated, or,
it may be, even seen, by the naked eye.

The time during which our acquaintance with these last has been
gradually augmenting may, in like manner, be divided into two natural
periods. The beginning of the first we shall not attempt to define. The
end of the second period is yet to come. But the junction between the
two is clearly marked by the appearance of the great work of Ehren-
berg : Die Infusionsthierchen.

There are some who, of late years, have not paid that meed of re-
spect to the name of the veteran microscopist of Germany, which his
eminent services in the canse of biology may justly claim. Not that
we are of the number of those who unduly venerate authority in matters

VOL. I. — N. H. R. B

122 REVIEWS.

of observation, even though it be vested in the person of Professor
Ehrenberg, whose real merits we wish fully to acknowledge, but to
whose many shortcomings we are, nevertheless, not blind. Science is
the religion of fact ; a religion without an orthodoxy, which knows no
altars, save those of truth and freedom. It becomes, then, her priests,
as a most sacred duty, to deprecate all prejudice, false praise, and per-
sonal idolatry. But, on the other hand, she does not Avithhold merit
where merit is due. Nor do we find among the detractors from the
fame of Ehrenberg the names of those discoverers whose investigations
offer the sole refutation we possess of not a few of his declared opinions..
It is against the cowardly abuse of this great man by a host of empty
authors, parasites on the scientific substance of others, and who of them-
selves could never have pointed out one error in the writings of
him whom they assail, that we now desire to raise our voice. Of such
praise as it is in our power to give, Professor Ehrenberg does not stand
in need. His works fix an epoch in science. Erom them he may ap-
peal to the scanty knowledge of microscopic beings which existed before
his time, and point to what it has since become. His best witnesses are
his candid opponents. They know the armoury wherein their most
successful weapons have been forged.*

Furthermore, we should not forget, what a glance at systematic
treatises is, indeed, sufficient to show, that our views as to the nature
and relations of the " Infusoria" are even now in the midst of a com-
plete revolution ; a revolution, too, which, to speak metaphorically, has
seen its deposed monarch, its Girondists, its Men of the Mountain, but
whose all- victorious despot is yet to come.

The dismemberment of the vast assemblage of diverse beings some-
what hastily brought together by Ehrenberg under the common title of
Infusoria, has proved, indeed, no light task to those naturalists by whom
it has been attempted. Now, however, we may fairly conclude that
all these organisms fall under one or other of two very dissimilar sec-
tions, the animal and the vegetable.

* A curious analogy may be traced between the contributions of Ehrenberg to our
knowledge of minute organisms, and the researches of Schleiden and Schwann in the
still wider field of general histology.* The great works of both were published about the
same year, 1 838. Both rendered services of the utmost value to science, though the funda-
mental " conceptions of structure" of Ehrenberg, as of Schleiden and Schwann, have since
been proved to be erroneous. The writings of both have not so much an actual as an
" historical value." In one respect, indeed, Schleiden and Schwann show an advantage
over their illustrious contemporary. They always appeal with sure confidence to the
study of development, and lose no opportunity of urging its primary importance. Had
Ehrenberg more frequently sought the aid of this all- potent test, he would not have per-
mitted Cohn, by his brilliant application of it in the case of Frotococcus pluvialis, to
offer oue of the most striking proofs of the insufficiency of a purely anatomical method
of reseach which has, perhaps, ever appeared.

* For a concise criticism of these, last, see an Essay by Mr. Huxley, in Brit. & For. Med.-Chir. Rev.,
Oct., 1S53.

PRIXCHARD's history of infusoria. 1 23

The vegetable Infusoria include the Diatoms, the Desniids, and cer-
tain other organisms which most botanists regard as low forms of Algae.
All these Infusoria are sometimes spoken of collectively as constituting
a single group, termed Protophyta.

But what are Protophyta? The word itself seems suggestive of
a vegetable group, holding a position among plants akin to that which
Protozoa occupy in the animal kingdom. Such an answer must, how-
ever, be regarded as inconsistent; for no botanist has yet proposed to
elevate the Protophyta to the rank of a sub-kingdom, while the Protozoa
form one of the five primary departments of the animal world. True
it is that botanists are slow to acknowledge the systematic value of
the several groups which constitute the great division of Cryptogams; and
it may even be questioned whether these last do not bear to Phaeno-
gams a relation somewhat similar to that between Invertebrate and
Vertebrate animals. This, at least, must be admitted, that the Cryp-
togams differ much more inter se than do the Phaenogams ; and it is
difficult to mention any positive anatomical feature common to all the
members of the former sub-kingdom. Their reproductive organs are
often not homologous. And, assuredly, the " spore" of a Moss by no
means corresponds with what is called the spore of a Fern. With
regard to the Protophyta in particular, all that can be said is, that they
constitute a sub-group of the large class of Algae ; but whether equiva-
lent to the Chlorospermeae, or to all the thalloid Algae taken together,
it is, at present, not easy to determine. To define the Protozoa as
unicellular animals, and the Protophyta as unicellular plants, not
merely requires the assumption of a theory which is, at best, very far
from proven, but contradicts directly the plain testimony of observed
facts, both in the structure and development of these highly diversified
forms.

As to the animal Infusoria, they consist of —

1. Rhizopoda,

2. Infusoria proper,

3. Doubtful embryonic forms, and

4. Eotifera.

The Eotifera now form part of the Annulose sub-kingdom. The
Rhizopoda and Infusoria have been placed by Siebold in the sub-king-
dom Protozoa.

A copy of the " Infusionsthierchen" lies before us, while we pen
the present page. It forms a huge folio volume of 550 pages, with an
atlas of sixty- four coloured plates. The characters of the several groups
are in three different languages, Latin, German, and French. It is
impossible to consult this (in every sense) great work, without some
feeling of admiration for the prodigious industry which, in the year
1838, and with inferior instruments, could accumulate so many hun-
dred figures and descriptions of living beings, all of minute size, and
many for the first time made known to science by their distinguished
investigator.

124 REVIEWS.

But there was wanting some interpreter, some medium, by whom
this vast mass of knowledge might be made available to the micro-
scopists of Britain. Such a medium science has found in Dr. Pritchard,
whose history of the Infusoria is, to some extent, an English re-issue
of the classical work of Ehrenberg.

The fourth edition of Dr. Pritchard' s book, which has just made
its appearance, is, however, much more than this. It contains copious
statements of the views which modern observers entertain in opposition
to Ehrenberg' s doctrines ; and the Infusoria of that writer are by no
means regarded as constituting one great natural assemblage.

If this be so, some one may ask, why has Dr. Pritchard included
in a single treatise descriptions of living forms acknowledged to differ thus
widely from one another ? The reply is, that all these forms, however
dissimilar in structure, agree, with but few exceptions, in their ex-
tremely minute size and community of aquatic habit. Hence they are
liable to be studied in succession by the same investigator, who na-
turally desires to find as much information as possible concerning them
within the compass of one volume.

Yet we do not coincide with Dr. Pritchard in his proposal to retain
the term Infusoria, as a convenient collective designation for^the various
groups in question. Would it not be more appropriate to restrict the
application of this word to the stomatode Protozoa ? These, with a few
other forms, are by Dr. Pritchard distinguished as "Ciliata." But it
might be questioned whether all the true Infusoria present conspicuous
cilia. Is not the possession of a mouth the only constant feature where-
by they may definably be separated from other Protozoa ?

The several divisions of Dr. Pritchard' s work together form one
thick octavo volume of nearly a thousand pages. Its entire contents are
arranged under two principal parts : the first being a general, and the
second, a systematic history of " Infusoria."

The first part contains five sections. Section I. treats of the Bacillaria
of Ehrenberg, including the Diatoms, Desmids, and a third group sepa-
rated from the latter under the name of Pediastrese. In section II. are
discussed certain other low vegetable forms, mostly locomotive, and fur-
nished with whip-like cilia. These are termed Phytozoa, and corre-
spond to the group denominated Flagellata by Cohn, and Volvocineae by
Henfrey. To us this employment of the word Phytozoa appears ob-
jectionable, conveying, as it does, an erroneous view of the nature of
the organisms so entitled. It is, moreover, merely an inversion of the
old term Zoophyta, already used in so many different significations.

The remainder of the first part is devoted solely to animal forms :
section III. treating of Protozoa ; section IV. of Rotifera ; and section
V. of Tardigrada.

The section on Protozoa gives a general account of the fresh-water
Rhizopods, Gregarinida, Infusoria proper, and Noctilucida. The Ichthy-
dina are noticed as a special sub-group, — the author being, we think,
justified in his exclusion of these anomalous creatures from the well-
marked division of Eotifera. But we are not disposed to agree with his

PEITCHAED S HISTORY OF INFUSORIA. 125

statement that Dysteria " occupies a position in the zoological scale
above the Ciliata," or to conclude with Mr. Gosse "that it is an annectent
form between the Eotifera and the Infusoria (**. e. the Ciliata), with a
preponderance of the characters of the former class." "Without waiting
to discuss the doctrine of affinity implied in the last sentence, we may be
permitted to express our surprise that any doubt could have been enter-
tained as to the true relationship of Dysteria with the uncinate In-
fusoria.

The survey taken in this section of the ciliated Infusoria may be con-
sidered as, upon the whole, a satisfactory review of our knowledge of
the organization of these animals previous to the appearance of the sys-
tematic works of Stein, Lachmann, and Claparede ; works, it must be
remembered, which are not yet brought to a conclusion. With Siebold,
the author continues to regard the Opalineae and Peridineae as a sub-
group of the Infusoria proper. Such a view of their affinities seems to
us far from satisfactory. But in a subsequent paragraph on the " Na-
ture of Opalineae," it is rightly stated that " the observations of micro-
scopists in general concur to prove that these simple beings are not
independent, but the mere embryonic or transitional phases of other
animals." And the vegetability of the Peridineae is, we venture to sug-
gest, less improbable than many naturalists suppose — the wreath of cilia
which surrounds the bodies of these creatures not being, of necessity,
at variance with it.

The short notice of the Gregarinidae and Psorospermia in the same
section briefly reviews the principal memoirs which treat of these forms.

The shelly structure of the Bhizopoda is discussed only in general
terms, the Spongida, Echinocystida, and other marine Protozoa, not be-
ing described in any detail. The brief history given of the Poraminifera,
so far as it goes, is good, and a translation of Schultze's proposed arrange-
ment of these animals has here been appended.

In the section on Eotifera the researches of Ehrenberg, Dujardin,
Colin, Leydig, Huxley, Vogt, Williamson, Gosse, and others, are each
in turn explained ; and the reader is led to conclude, we think rightly,
that the systematic relations of these animals are less with the Crustacea
than with the Worms. The close resemblance between some adult Eo-
tifers and the larval forms of various Annuloida appears to leave but
little room for doubt on this question.

The last section of the first part comments on the structure of the
Tardigrada, a group which the author, following Kaufmann, is induced
to consider "the lowest section of the Arachnida, by the side of the
Pychnogonida and the Acarina."

In the systematic division of the work, minute descriptions are given
of the families, genera, and species of the Bacillaria, Flagellata, Tardi-
grada, Eotifera, Amcebea, and Ciliata, so far, at least, as they are provi-
sionally definable. A full review of this part would involve us in a
lengthened series of discussions on the constitution of each of the groups
whose classification is attempted therein.

The author and his several coadjutors may fairly be said to have per-

126 REVIEWS.

formed with credit the task they have undertaken. The result has been
a treatise more useful than profound, partaking less of the nature of a
grammar than of a dictionary. It would be false criticism, therefore, to
complain of the copious introduction of long quotations from various
writers, in the place of condensed statements of their more general con-
clusions. Lastly, it should be understood that original matter is by no
means wanting, especially in those portions of the work which treat of
vegetable forms.

The number of plates has been largely increased in the present issue,
and most of the numerous new illustrations appear to have been selected
with considerable judgment.

To the purchasers of Dr. Pritchard's book there is one word in conclu-
sion, which we do not wish to leave unsaid. While eminent success has
attended English naturalists in their investigation of the lower forms of
vegetable life, they have almost wholly abandoned to their Continental
brethren the widely extended field of research which the great group of
animal Infusoria so accessibly affords. Cordially congratulating our
French and German fellow- workmen on the rich contributions made by
them to this last department of inquiry, we feel, nevertheless, that many
more observers are yet wanting to complete what has been already so
happily begun. The Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science has
just entered on a new series. We heartily wish it success, and hope of-
ten to find throughout its pages ample records of future British disco-
veries in the structure and life-history of the true Infusoria.

XIV. — Primitl^: Floile Amueensis. By C. J. Maximowicz, Traveller
to the Imperial Botanical Garden of St. Petersburgh. 4to. (Sepa-
rately printed from the ninth volume of the " l^emoires presentes a
l'Academie Imperiale des Sciences de St. Petersbourg par divers
Savans.")

In our last Number we adverted to the prompt liberality of the Russian
Government in the publication of the results of their scientific expedi-
tions, as exemplified in the accounts of their explorations of their newly
acquired Amurland, of which we then reviewed the zoological portion.
No less activity was displayed in the botanical department. The col-
lectors returned to St. Petersburgh in the spring of 1857 ; and by the
end of 1859, very full sets of their specimens were deposited in several
of the principal national herbaria of Europe, including those of Paris and
Kew; and early in 1860, all that could be known on the botany of the
country was published in the shape of the large quarto of 500 pages now
before us, accompanied by ten plates and a map, the whole issued at a
price (about 16s. 6c?.), which places it within reach of the working-
botanist. And this is not, as is but too frequently the case after similar
expeditions, a hasty catalogue of the plants gathered by the collector

THE FLORA OF AMOORLA.ND. 127

himself, describing as new all that cannot be readily identified, but a
complete enumeration of all the species known to grow in the country,
as far as could be made out from the materials deposited at St. Peters-
burgh by different collectors, or from the few works already published ;
the whole carefully compared, when possible, with specimens from ad-
joining countries, and followed by general essays on the physical aspect,
climate, and vegetation of the territory, chiefly drawn up from personal
observation and data collected during a two years' residence there.

M. Charles John Maximo wicz* was in July, 1854, botanical collector
to the Petersburgh Botanical Garden, on board the frigate Diana,
which, in the course of a scientific voyage round the world, was then
lying in the Bay of Castries, off the coast of Mantchuria, near the lower
Amur. In consequence of the outbreak of the war with England, he
there left her, and remained in the Amur district till the autumn of 1856,
spending the long winters at Mariinsk, on the river, 300 versts (225
miles), above its mouth, but separated from the Bay of Castries only by a
very narrow chain of hills. His explorations in 1854 were chiefly along
the coast between Castries and Nicholaefsk, at the mouth of the river.
In the summer of 1855 he ascended the Lower Amur and its southern
affluent, the Ussuri, to the mouth of the ISor, in lat. 47°. In 1856, he was
detained late at Mariinsk by the arrangements preparatory to an antici-
pated attack from the English ; and the season was far advanced when
he ascended the whole length of the river on his return to St. Peters-
burgh. His own collections are therefore nearly limited to the plants of
the Lower Amur and Ussuri; but his enumeration includes those gathered
by M. Maack, traveller to the Bussian Geographical Society, who, in the
spring and early summer of 1855, descended the river from its commence-
ment to its mouth, and by Dr. L. v. Schrenck, traveller to the Imperial'
Academy of Sciences, who ascended it early in the following summer.
Use has also been, made of the smaller and more local collections of M.
de Turczaninoff, Dr. Weyrich, and M. C. von Detmar.

The basin of the Amur, which appears to have received the name of
Amurland, forming hitherto part of Northern Mantchuria, lies to the
north of the high snowy mountain range of Shan-alin (lat. about 42°).
The river commences by the junction of the Schilka and the Argun, in
lat. 53°, at the point where they enter the mountain chain bounding the
high table-land of their upper course ; and after pursuing its way for some
time through a still elevated hilly land, and taking a more southerly di-
rection, it enters, at the mouth of the Dreja, into a broad plain, traversed
near to the southern bend of the river, in lat. 47° 30', by the rugged
transverse ridge of the Bureja mountains. The Amur now turns again
towards the north-east and north, rrW along the foot of a mountain
chain parallel to the coast, until by a sudden turn to the east it breaks
through the hills, and empties itself into the straits of Tartary in lat.
53°. The whole basin, from the Chingan mountains on the west to the

* Cz pronounced like ch in church.

128 REVIEWS.

sea on the east, thus occupies about 20° of longitude, and about 12° of
latitude, from the Shan-alin range on the south to the Stanovoi moun-
tains on the north.

The climate is by no means a genial one : under the latitude of
London, the river is frozen over six months in the year. The mean
monthly temperature, taken from the averages of two years' daily ob-
servations (three times each day at 6, 7, or 9, a.m.; at 2, or 3, p.m.;
and at 9, or 10, p. m.), at Mariinsk was - 11° E. (about 8° Fahr.) in
January, and -14° E. (0° Fahr.) in February; and still lower at Mko-
laeiosk, with a minimum at Mariinsk of - 31° E. (about - 38° Fahr.) At
the southern bend of the river there is some improvement; the river may
not freeze over till after the middle of November, arid breaks up very
early in May, or in the end of April ; but further south again, at Girin,
on the Ssunguri, at the foot of the Shan-alin range, the thermometer
frequently falls in winter to - 30° E. (- 35° Fahr.) The whole territory,
in short, belongs to that coldest of all regions in proportion to latitude,
North-eastern Asia ; and it is only when the high snow-clad mountains
of Southern Mantchuria are passed, and wo descend their southern de-
clivity towards Pekin, that a sudden rise of temperature is experienced, —
the mean monthly temperature in that capital, on an average of thirteen
years, being, -2° 74' E. (about 26° Fahr.), for January; and -0*9' E.
(about 31° Fahr.) for February, with a minimum of - 8° E. (14° Fahr.)
The narrow coast-line, separated from the lower Amur by a ridge of
pine-clad mountains rising in most places rapidly from the shore, may
be somewhat milder ; but even here the moderating influence of the sea
is felt less than in most maritime countries, probably from the interven-
tion of the long mountainous island of Sachalin, running parallel to the
coast from lat. 46° to 54° 30', in some parts only at a few miles' distance.

Under these circumstances, the Flora must be expected to be of a very
northern character; and all the peculiar plants of the country which have
as yet been introduced into the St. Petersbugh Botanic Garden appear to
bear well the winters of that place (in lat. 60°), without protection.
During the short summers, however, the heat on the southern and lower
Amur is considerable, without long droughts ; vegetation is rapid and
luxuriant, including more southern species than we should have ex-
pected, protected perhaps in winter by the great mass of snow, which
accumulates habitually to the depth of several feet. In the Upper
Amur, the climate in this respect, as well as the Flora, partakes more of
that of Nertchinsk, in Dahuria, where, in lat. 51° 19', with an average
January temperature of- 23° 67, E. (about - 21° Fahr.), and a minimum
of - 36° E. (-49° Fahr.), there sometimes does not fall the whole year
round sufficient snow for the use of sledges.

The geographical distribution of the Amur Flora is treated of by M.
Maximowicz with great detail, and considerable ability, under various
points of view as to species, genera, and orders, taking in many respects
for his guide the principles laid down in A. de Candolle's ' Geographie
Botanique raisonnee,' and exhibiting the relations to climate and phy-
sical conditions, as well as to the vegetation of adjoining regions, as far

THE FLORA OF AMOORLAXP. 129

as his materials permitted, and comparing them with the vegetation of
Dahuria (the trans-Baikal Flora), Eastern Siberia, North China (Pekin),
Japan, and North America. As was to be expected, a large number
of the species are Siberian, and European and North Asiatic natu-
ral orders are the prevailing ones ; yet, if we compare the Elora gene-
rally with that of the Altai, for instance, there is a considerable change in
its character; the Cruciferae, Astragali, Umbclliferae, Pedicularidae, and
other groups constituting so marked a feature in the herbaceous Flora of
the latter region, are but sparingly represented in Amuiiand, where
Euphorbiaceae, Cyperaceae, Filices, Ribes, Evonymus, &c, become
more prominent, showing a tendency, as remarked by our author, to-
wards the North American proportions of groups. We enter indeed
here, especially in the southern Amur and Ussuri valley, into the cu-
rious band of vegetation which connects the United States with the Hi-
malaya through Japan, South Mantchuria and North China, and much
more so than M. Maximowicz appears to have been aware of. Dr. A
Gray's interesting review of the Japanese Flora had not yet reached St.
Petersburgh, and our knowledge of the vegetation of temperate eastern
Asia was, and is still, lamentabry scanty. Yet every addition we receive
to it, and the work now under review as much as any one, shows more
clearly the remarkable phytogeographical connexion first pointed out by
Dr. Gray.

M. Maximowicz' s enumeration, after deducting a very few cultivated
plants, comprises 904 species, of which 527 are common to the trans-
Baikal or Dahurian Flora, 293 to north-east Siberia. For the concord-
ance with the Japanese Flora he can give no precise figures; but, although
the number is probably less than either of the above, it is considerable,
and must include, as he correctly observes, several of the species here
first described as new. A list is given of 143 endemic species, hitherto
only known in Amuiiand, and 56 more only extending to Pekin ; but
amongst them it has already been ascertained that Actinidia Icolomitka
is the A. callosa, LindL, extending from the Himalaya to Japan ; Cau-
lopliyllum robttstiim is certainly not different from several Japanese and
N. American specimens of C. thalictroides. Adenocmdon adlicerens is
the Himalayan A. himalaicus, Edgw. ; Youngia chrysantha is the Chi-
nese and Japanese Ixeris ramosissima, A. Gr. ; Phyllanthas ussuriensis is
the widely-spread south and east Asiatic P. anceps ; Smilacina Mrta is
S.jap>onica, A. Gr. ; Maximowiczia chinensis is the Japanese Spihosro-
stemmajaponica, A. Gr. ; and the majority of the new species will proba-
bly be hereafter found to be identical with, or closely allied to N. Chinese
and Japanese, or even Himalayan or North American forms. And we
may here remark that, amongst other links afforded by the southern
Amur Flora, connecting the chain of North American and Asiatic ve-
getation, we have Phryma leptostachya, which had so long been con-
sidered as an isolated instance of a plant common to the eastern United
States and to the Himalaya, without its occurring in any intermediate sta-
tions. It is very abundant in North China, and on the lower and southern

VOL. I. N. H. E. S

130 BE VIEWS.

Amur. It is, however, still unknown in Japan ; and, like several other
species of the same geographical group, it appears to be entirely want-
ing in "Western America.

Among the weeds of the southern Amur we are surprised to see a
few southern forms, such as Myriogyne, Phyllanthns, Acalypha, Pilea,
&c, which find time to run through their annual course in the short but
hot summers.

The new species described by Maximo wicz amount to above 120,
including a few that had been shortly mentioned in the Bulletin of the
Academy of St. Petersburgh by Ruprecht or Maack. Some, indeed,
have since proved to be identical with previously described Japanese or
more southern species, and others may have been established on grounds
which we might scarcely consider sufficient; but the majority of those
we have seen are such as we should be inclined to adopt, and we highly
appreciate the pains taken by the author in the descriptions, synonyms,
and other systematic details of his work. "We cannot, however, as readily
concur in the twelve new genera proposed by himself or Dr. Ruprecht,
all except one monotypic. If, indeed, as is a very prevalent opinion
among modern botanists, any two species which show appreciable dif-
ferences in their floral or reproductive organs, not in essential structure
only, but even in number, form, or relative proportion, must belong to
distinct genera, we might acquiesce in the adoption of every one ; but
if, as we believe, a genus should be a group of species having certain
characters or resemblances in common, collected under one name for the
convenience of study and comparison ; and if monotypic genera should
be avoided as useless, except where the character of a species are such
that it cannot be connected with others without disturbing the arrange-
ment and principles of distribution of the other genera of an order, tribe,
or group, we fear that the Amurland will have supplied few, if any, that
have really a right to stand as genera per se. Taking this view, we will
proceed to examine such of them as we have materials for judging of,
either from specimens or from the well-executed outline plates of the
work.

1. Maximoiviczia, Rupr. — This plant, which, as above noticed, has
been published as a Splicerostemma by A. Gray, is intermediate, as it
were, between some species of the latter genus and Schizandra. It be-
longs to a small distinct group of Magnoliaceaa established under the
name of SchizandracesD, and consisting now of thirteen species, which
are readily separable into two groups upon characters derived from the
gynoecium and fruit. Kadsura, with the carpels crowded in a globular
head, has seven species; the other six species have them loosely arranged
in an elongated spike. These six differ considerably from each other in
the androecium, and, if that character be relied on, must be split up into
four, at least, if not five genera, of which Maximowiczia would be one ;
or they may be all grouped into one genus, under the original name of
Schizandra. We should prefer the latter course, as being more simple,
and more in conformity with our principles of systematic distribution ;

THE FLORA OP AMOORLANP. 131

whilst, at the same time, sectional divisions are amply sufficient for call-
ing attention to the greater importance of some of the specific distinc-
tions as compared with others.

Plagiorhegma, Maxim., is, under our view, a second species of Jef-
fersonia, with which it forms a very well characterized natural genus.
The undivided leaves and more oblique dehiscence of the capsule than in
the original J. dipliylla, are excellent specific distinctions, but would
not, in any other instance, be admitted as generic. The flowers are un-
known; for the two loose ones picked up from the ground, and described
by Maximowicz, were found not to tally with the appearances of the
young capsule, and consequently were at first concluded to be abnormal,
but afterwards admitted (p. 460), to have probably belonged to some
other plant. We mention this as a caution to travelling collectors
against a not uncommon practice of hastily concluding that flowers or
fruits picked up under a tree or herb must have fallen from it — a source
of many an error in descriptive botany.

Hylomecon, Maxim., " has the habits and flowers of Stylophorum,
with the fruit of Chelidonium" This fruit, however, the author had
not himself seen, but states it, on the authority of the natives, to be two
inches long, and slender — a very insufficient authority for establishing
a genus, when there is nothing in the enlarged ovary (as correctly
figured) to indicate this elongation ; for, might not the natives have con-
founded it with the true Chelidonium majus, stated to be very common
in the country ? It is true, that in Hylomecon, as well as in the nearly
allied Dicranostigma, Hook, and Thorns., from the Himalaya, the ovary is
2-merous, whereas in the two American species of Stylophorum, it is
usually 3-4-merous ; but even in these, the carpels are sometimes re-
duced to 2 ; and by uniting the Himalayan as well as the Mantschurian
plants with the American, we have a natural and well-characterized
genus of four species.

Phellodendron, Rupr. belongs to a group allied to Xanihoxylon, but
differing chiefly in the opposite leaves, the scarcely imbricate or some-
times valvate corolla, and the superposed ovules. There are several
south and east Asiatic species, which, from having been usually com-
pared with Xanthoxijlon only, have been proposed as genera under the
names of Lepta, JBoymia, Philagonia, and Megabotrya ; but which, on a
general review, show that there is nothing in character or habit to se-
parate them (as well as the opposite-leaved species published as Xan-
thoxyla), from the old-established genus Evodia, with which no one
seems to have thought of comparing them.

Maackia, Eupr. differs from the North American Cladrastis, Eaf., in
its small crowded flowers, with a shorter calyx, more obtuse at the
base, and rather shorter pod ; the other characters, the foliage and habit,
are nearly the same ; and although a very distinct species, we cannot see
sufficient grounds for separating it generically from the rT. American
plant. The stamens are figured as monadelphous ; they are, however,
in a flower we examined, free as described.

Sckizopepon, Maxim., a cucurbitaceous plant, cannot well be judged

132 REVIEWS.

of in the present state of confusion into which that order has been
thrown by the excessive multiplication of genera, especially in the Bry-
onia group. Mitrosicyos, Maxim., belonging to the same order, is a very
distinct genus, of which two species are described. A third, however,
had been previously published in Griffith's "Notulae," under the name
of Actinostemma, which must prevail over Maximo wicz's Mitrosicyos.

Eleutherococcus, Maxim., is well distinguished from Heeler a, with
which, following only the arrangement of the Araliacese of De Candolle
and Endlicher, it might have been technically, but improperly asso-
ciated. In the re-arrangement of the order sketched out by Decaisne
and Planchon in the " Revue Horticole" for 1854, with which Maxi-
niowicz was probably unacquainted, this plant would probably range
under Panax, sect. Acanthopanax.

Symphylloca/rpus, Maxim., is a small composite weed, closely allied
to Myriogyne in character, and to Thespis in appearance, but separated
from both by a purely artificial character, the value of which we are
not able to judge of, not having seen any specimen.

Syneilesis, Maxim., is also composite ; the genus is created for the
Cacalia aconitifolia, Bunge, which has the habit and general characters
of Cacalia, as limited by modern authors. Our specimens have no ripe
fruit ; and we are unable to say whether the remarkable union of the
two cotyledons by one edge is of sufficient constancy to separate it even
as an artificial genus.

Pterygocalyx, Maxim., appears to us in nowise to differ as a genus
from Craivfurclia, although, as a species, it differs from all the other
known ones by the obtuse lobes of the corolla.

Omphalotrix, Maxim, is distinguished from Odontites by characters
derived from the placenta and the size of the embryo, which appear to
us to be of very little importance. The habit is said to be very diffe-
rent ; but to our eyes it is not far from that of 0. lutea and 0. grana-
tensis, differing chiefly in the longer and more slender pedicles.

M. Maximowicz's chapters on the area occupied by the principal
gregarious trees of Amurland, and on the cultivated and economic plants
of the country, are of high interest ; and on the latter subject, especially,
we should be glad to see more attention bestowed than is usual with
botanists resident for a time in little-known countries. We can also
highly commend the map, as giving, from the most authentic available
sources, the prominent physical features of the territory in a clear and
conspicuous form.

( 133 )

6righwl %xMjm*

XV. — On the Species and Genera of Plants, considered with Re-
ference to their practical Application to Systematic Botany.
By George Bentham. (Extracted from a Paper read before the Lin-
nean Society of London, JNov. 15, 1858.)*

I say Species and Genera, rather than Genera and Species ; for the whole
system of classification depends, in the first instance, on a right under-
standing of what is meant by species.

The Species, in the ordinary traditional acceptation of the word, de-
signates the whole of the individuals supposed to be descended from one
original plant, or pair of plants. But this definition is practically use-
less— for we have no means of ascertaining the hereditary history of in-
dividual plants — and is considered theoretically incorrect by those who
deny the original creation of a certain number of individuals, or pairs of
individuals, forming each a parent stock, from which as many con-
stantly distinct races have descended. It has, therefore, been proposed
entirely to reject descent as an element in the definition of species, and
to consider as such any set of individuals which present, either in their
external form, or in their internal structure, or in their biological phe-
nomena, any common character, or combination of characters, distin-
guishing them from all others. But in nature there are no two indi-
viduals exactly alike in every respect. In all collections of individuals,
even when the immediate offspring of one parent, peculiarities will be
found common to some, and not to all. The species or collection of in-
dividuals thus defined, becomes, therefore, as arbitrary as the genus or
collection of species, and reduces the rules of classification in the one
case, as in the other, to little more than rules of convenience.

Believing, however, as I do, that there exist in nature a certain num-
ber of groups of individuals, the limits to whose powers of variation are,
under present circumstances, fixed and permanent, I have been in the
habit of practically defining the species as the whole of the individual
plants which resemble each other sufficiently to make us conclude that they
are all, or may have been all, descended from a common parent. Their va-
riations would be such only as we observe among individuals, which we

* The great length to which this paper, read at three different meetings of the Society,
extended, prevented its immediate publication, and the subsequent appearance of Mr.
Darwin's work rendered obsolete the short allusions I had made to the theories advanced
on the origin of species. The present extract, however, is purely practical, relating to
species as they now exist, and have existed within historical periods, quite independently
of their theoretical origin.

134 ORIGINAL ARTICLES.

know or believe to have had such a common descent. The specific iden-
tity of two or more individuals admits, therefore, but very rarely of po-
sitive proof ; we must judge of it by inductive evidence, selecting by the
careful consideration of what characters are known, especially in allied
species, to remain permanent generation after generation, unaltered by
change of soil, climate, or other circumstances, and what are the varia-
tions occasioned by causes which we can appreciate, or which are known
to occur without assignable cause. The conclusions to be derived from
such evidence will not, indeed, always be decisive, and different persons
will often form different judgments ; but that is an unavoidable conse-
quence of the imperfection of the human mind.

My own attention was first directed to the variations to which plants
of the same species are liable, under different circumstances, in the year
1820. I had then become tolerably familiar with the common plants
of France, in the West, in Upper Languedoc, and in the central Pyre-
nees ; and, settling for some years in the neighbourhood of Montpelier,
I was struck with the different aspect assumed by several of the same
species in this very different soil and climate. In the first instance, I
did indeed believe that many of these were representative, not identical
species ; but I could not but observe even then that, in many cases, spe-
cies really the same underwent considerable modifications, through the
influence of soil and climate. In 1823 I collected, with my friend, Dr.
Arnott, a considerable number of Scotch specimens, which, two years
later, after our Pyrenean tour, we had the opportunity of comparing
with a similar vegetation grown in mountains of twice or thrice the ele-
vation of the Scotch ones, but under a difference of latitude of 12 to 13
degrees ; whilst, on the same Pyrenean chain, we were several times
struck with the differences exhibited by plants of the same species grow-
ing in the cool northern, or the hot southern valleys. In 1821, on my
father's estate near Montpelier, a considerable extent of the botanically
rich waste lands, called garrigues, was walled in, to allow the natural
wood to grow up ; and, during the few succeeding years, I could observe
a gradual, but in many instances very striking, change take place in
the character and aspect of the wild plants protected by the enclosure.
In 1837, when at Trieste, I visited a similar enclosure, on a larger
scale, and of many years' standing, at Lippiza, near that town, and ob-
served very marked differences in the individuals of some species, when
growing within or without these walls. From the time, indeed, when
I first began to collect notes on the vegetation of Southern Europe, some
of which I embodied in my " Catalogue des Plantes des Pyrenees et du
Bas-Languedoc," published in 1826, my attention has been much di-
rected to the modifications of specific types, in all my herborisations in
various parts of Europe, and, more especially, in the mountains of Scot-
land, the Pyrenees, Central France, and Tyrol ; in the lower hills and
plains of France, Britain, Sweden, Germany, Italy, and Sicily ; and on
the coasts of Britain, Western and Southern France, and various parts
of the Mediterranean, Adriatic, and Black Seas. The preparation of
large collections for distribution has given me opportunities of studying

BENTHAM ON THE HISTORY AND GENERA OF PLANTS. 135

many American, African, and Asiatic species in large masses of speci-
mens. In some of the more important monographs I have worked up, I
have been enabled to compare the materials of the principal herbaria of
Europe ; and, since my working- stock has been transferred to Kew, the
daily consultation of such a collection as that of Sir "William Hooker has
contributed very much to confirm my ideas as to the variability and
limitation of species ; and nothing more so than the extensive and highly
instructive series brought from India by Drs. Hooker and Thomson, and
the numerous accurate and judicious notes and memoranda so liberally
communicated by Dr. Hooker. "When, therefore, I speak of having ob-
served a series of specimens collected in various parts of the geographi-
cal area of a species, I do not mean (as has been hinted) the examination
of a few single specimens from different localities deposited in a herba-
rium, but the observation of a species in a living wild state in diffe-
rent countries, or the comparison of numerous specimens, either pro-
miscuously collected, or selected, with notes, for the purpose of illus-
trating variations.

And here I would observe, that the use of herbaria in determining
the extent of variability of species requires the greatest caution. JSTot
only are the specimens preserved generally unaccompanied by any notes
on the comparative frequency of the form gathered, and others closely
resembling it, or on any other local circumstances affecting the ques-
tion, but they are very likely to lead the botanist astray in these parti-
culars. A collector is naturally struck by a plant differing in aspect
from the generality of its species, and gathers it in preference to the
forms more familiar to him. The consequence is, that it frequently hap-
pens that an accidentally abnormal variety, which may occur only once
in the way in nature, having been cut up into a number of specimens,
and distributed without notes to various botanists, has, from its presence
in so many herbaria, all the appearance of a form abundant in the loca-
lity cited.

The experience I have thus obtained has gradually produced in my
mind a conviction of the truth of the following axioms : —

Every species has certain determinate limits of variation, which it
only exceeds under exceptional circumstances.

The exceptionally abnormal forms thus produced are few in indivi-
duals, and are not reproduced ; or their race becomes gradually extin-
guished, when the causes which produce them cease.

Within these limits of variation, a species will, in some countries, or
under certain circumstances, produce an indefinite number of indivi-
dual, or more or less permanent varieties, "often passing into each other
by almost imperceptible gradations ; whilst, in other countries, or un-
der other circumstances, a certain number of these varieties or races will
remain, generation after generation, marked by positive, distinctive
characters, having at first sight the appearance of real species.

Plants of the same species often breed freely together, the cross-
breeding of different individuals sometimes producing a more vigorous
offspring than those sprung from a single flower, and being, perhaps, oc-

136 ORIGINAL ARTICLES.

casionally even necessary in plants apparently hermaphrodite. In other
species, cross-breeding between individuals or races is rare and excep-
tional, and apt to be unfruitful.*

Plants of distinct species breed together only under exceptional cir-
cumstances.

The hybrids thus produced are constitutionally more or less imper-
fect. They seldom produce a second generation, unless fertilized by an
individual of one of the parent species, to which they then gradually re-
turn. They, therefore, do not establish permanent races, but disappear
in nature, unless reproduced by a fresh cross-breeding between the pa-
rent species.

Setting aside, in the first instance, these hybrids, and accidentally
abnormal extreme variations, monstrosities, and diseases, the variations
of a species may be generally referred to two classes.

1. Variations resulting from the direct influence of soil, climate,
food, or other external circumstances, such as luxuriance from a rich
soil, fleshiness from a maritime exposure, &c. These act upon the in-
dividual ; they may disappear in that individual when the exciting
causes are removed, or they may become so engrafted on the constitu-
tion as to last through life, after removal of the causes ; they may even
become more or less hereditary through one or more generations. Seeds
of a plethoric kitchen-garden vegetable, originally the result of a pecu-
liar treatment in a rich soil, will, even under a different and uncongenial
treatment, to a certain degree reproduce the same variety for some gene-
rations.

2. Variations which, arising from causes unknown to us, we consi-
der as constitutional, — variations in the colour of the flower, in the
form of particular parts, in the production or non-production of wings
or other appendages to fruits, seeds, peduncles, &c. These, like varia-
tions in the features of animals, are often hereditary, and in plants un-
der cultivation will last, or may be made (by selection of seed, &c.) to
last almost indefinitely ; and, in a wild state, they may, in particular
localities, result in apparently permanent races. These races, however,
generally breed readily with the typical forms of the species, and, al-
though permanent and distinct in some localities, will generally, in
some part of the area of the species, or under certain circumstances, be

* Since the above was written out, and when on the point of reading it to the Society,
I observed in the "Gardener's Chronicle" of the 13th Nov., 1858, a very important com-
munication from Mr. Darwin, in which he states his conviction that this cross-breeding
between different individuals of the same species is universal. I admit readily that the
vast number of curious observations he has made, most of them hitherto unpublished,
tend to show that this cross-breeding is very much more general than we had supposed,
and perhaps indispensable in certain species, or, at any rate, under certain climatologi-
cal conditions ; but I think there are numerous facts which argue strongly against its
universality. On the other hand, Naudin, in a still more recent number of the " Annales
des Sciences Naturelles," in which he gives an account of some highly instructive expe-
riments connected with hybridity, may have been led too far in his doubts as to the fre-
quency of cross-fecundation in some of the genera he has experimented upon.

BENTHAM ON THE SPECIES AND GENERA OF PLANTS. 137

found to break out occasionally into a return to the typical form, or to
be connected with it by numerous intermediates. Generally speaking,
such of these aberrant races as have sj)read to the limits of the geo-
graphical area of the species, or have become introduced into distant
countries, and have thus been adapted to a change of condition, will
there be found more disposed to maintain their peculiarities, or even to
diverge still more from their types. It is where the species is most at
home, where it accommodates itself most readily to a variety of soils and
exposures, where the stations it affects show a most ancient domicile,
that the connecting links between the varieties it has produced must
generally be sought for. And this is one great reason why permanence of
form is so little conclusive as evidence of specific difference, unless ob-
served in a considerable portion of the area of the species.

The investigation of the connecting links between two forms, with
the view of determining whether they are distinct species or marked
races of one species, is attended with great difficulty in the due appre-
ciation of what are intermediates — of the difference between one or two
definitely limited, though apparently intermediate species, and a chain
of intermediate forms connecting the two extreme varieties of one spe-
cies. The Allsike clover, in the colour of its flowers and mode of
growth, has been looked upon as intermediate between the Dutch and the
common red clover (T. repens andprateme), and some such idea sug-
gested to Linnaeus the name of T. hybriclum. Yet the evidences of its
specific distinctness from both are very strong. I have observed it with
care in a living state over a great part of its natural area in Sweden
and Central Europe. From T. pratense it is separated by characters
among the most constant in the genus, without, in this instance, any
tendency to variation. It is nearer to T. repens; and Professor Buck-
man, at the meeting of the British Association at Cheltenham, in 1856,
stated that he had found it degenerate into that species. I cannot
but think, however, that here there must have occurred one of those
mistakes so common in botanical and experimental gardens — that a plant
or its seeds have accidentally perished, and its place has been taken by some
ubiquitous species, so nearly allied as to escape observation when young,
such as, in this instance, T. repens. I never could detect, either in those
places where I have seen T. hyhridwm wild in the greatest abundance,
nor yet in the fields where it is cultivated, any tendency to assume the
creeping stems, the peculiar inflorescence, and other characters of T.
repens.

Take, again, Hypericum linariifolium. The cursory inspection of
a few herbarium specimens of this plant, of certain varieties of H.
perforatum, and of H. humifusum, might suggest the idea that the
former constituted a connecting link between the two latter. In this
instance the characters are less decided, and of a less constant nature
than in that of the three Clovers above quoted ; yet, so far as my expe-
rience goes — and I have observed H. linariifolmm living in parts of
"Western France, where it grows in the greatest abundance, besides nu-
merous dried specimens from the greater portion of its area, and the two

VOL. I. — N. H.E. T

138 ORIGINAL ARTICLES.

others living in a great variety of stations and countries — I have seen
no real tendency of H. linariifolium to pass into H. humifusum, still less
into H. perforatum.

On the other hand, a very good example of really intermediate forms,
erroneously (in my opinion) considered as constituting a distinct spe-
cies, is afforded by the Daisy. In my early botanical days I was fami-
liar with the two extreme forms— .the large-flowered, long-leaved Bellis
sylvestris of the south of Prance, of which I dried rather largely, select-
ing (as is usual with collectors), the most characteristic specimens, and
our common, much smaller-flowered, and broader-leaved B. perennis,
which I never particularly examined, and which is reckoned too com-
mon a plant to be frequently preserved in herbaria beyond a single spe-
cimen. The difference between the two was striking ; and I adopted,
without hesitation or consideration, their established specific distinctness.
I subsequently received from Prof. Gussone his B. intermedia, which I
laid in, on his authority, as. a distinct species, the single specimen being
quite insufficient to enable me to form any independent opinion on the
subject. But when, in the autumn of 1846, I saw the neighbourhood
of Constantinople abounding in daisies of various sizes, usually fully as
large as the Montpelier ones, but sometimes much more like our
northern ones, and equally variable in the form of their leaves, I felt
much puzzled as to which species I should refer them to. In the fol-
lowing spring, in my Sicilian herborisations in Gussone' s own country,
I paid particular attention to these plants. The three supposed species
there appeared to me to pass most gradually the one into the other, the
intermediates being more abundant than either of the extremes ; and
since that time, in other parts of Europe, I have observed that where
either of the extremes grows alone, its distinctive characters are not
nearly so constant as they are supposed to be. I have thus been irresis-
tibly led to the conviction that Bellis intermedia and sylvestris are mere
varieties of B. perennis.

In the above instances, the evidences of specific diversityjn the two
first, and of identity in the third, are to my mind conclusive ; and, as
further examples of cases where a conviction of specific identity has,
as it were, been forced upon me in opposition either to the views I had
at first entertained, or to those of a large number of modern botanists,
I would refer to Fumaria officinalis, Cerastium vulgatum, Rubus frutico-
sus, &c, which have all been the subject of long-contined observation,
and endeavours to maintain as distinct species forms which I have, in
my Handbook, reunited under the above names. There are, however, a
number of cases where the evidences, as hitherto collected, are so insuffi-
cient or so conflicting, as to render any satisfactory decision hopeless, until
carefully conducted experiments and observations shall have made us
better acquainted with the hereditary permanence of certain apparently
positive, but minute and unimportant characters.

It may be observed, in the first place, that there are frequently two
nearly allied forms, of nearly the same geographical range, which are
found more or less in company with each other, retaining over the

BFNTHAM ON THE SPECIES AND GENERA OF PLANTS. 1 39

whole of that range certain distinctive characters, of no great impor-
tance in their respective genera, yet apparently constant in that parti-
cular case. Such are, for instance, Viola odorata and hirta, Lychnis
vespertina and diurna, Ulex JSuropaeus and nanus, Sonchus oleraceus and
asper, Senecio jacobcea and eruccefolius, Orchis maculata and latifolia,
Juncus articulatus and obtusiflorus, and a number of others. In some
of these cases, the balance of evidence has appeared to me to be in fa-
vour of their specific distinctness, in others of their identity, and I have
so recorded them in my Hand-book, but often with great hesitation ;
and it is not improbable that further observation and experiment may
induce a change of opinion in regard to some of them.

Again, there are sometimes two, three, or more forms, having eveiy
appearance of really distinct species, all common over an extensive area,
or spreading into distant regions, and everywhere retaining their cha-
racters ; and yet we are occasionally startled by the appearance of inter-
mediate forms of various degrees, suggesting in some minds the specific
identity of the whole series, in others a progressive development from
one species to another ; and in others, again, natural hybrids ; whilst in
some instances the observer may have been deceived by accidentally ab-
normal specimens, carefully preserved and occupying a conspicuous part
in the herbarium, without any record of the attending circumstances
which might have accounted for their production, but which forms in na-
ture are very rare, and of mere temporary existence. Such occur, for in-
stance, among some of the common species of Rumex, Mentha, &c. It
is also frequently a matter of great nicety to determine what constitutes
an intermediate form ; for two plants, to be really intermediate, should
not be so in one character only,, but in general habit and aspect, in a
combination of all the characters which separate the two species it
stands between. The species of Carduus (including Cirsium) for instance,
have been artificially divided into species, with their leaves decurrent or
not. "When, therefore, a specimen of one which has usually sessile leaves is
met with having them slightly decurrent, it has been, on that account
alone, set down as intermediate between that and some other species to
which it shows no approach in any other point ; and thus figures in
books as a hybrid, or a distinct species, according to the tendency of its
describer.

One source of deception as to the real permanency of an abnormal
form, even when observed without variation in a wild state in the
greatest abundance, arises from the facility with which certain peren-
nials, or shrubs, multiply by runners, suckers, bulbs, or other modes of
division, especially in cool, moist, and comparatively sunless climates
like our own. Individual peculiarities are thus propagated naturally
in a wild state, as we do artificially in gardens, spreading over the
country in such numbers, as to be mistaken by the cursory observer for
races, if not for species. Seedling brambles, mints, creeping-rooted
weeds, &c, are rare in our climate ; the bulbiferous Alliums, the vivi-
parous grasses, many introduced plants, such as the Perhvinldes, Hype-
ricum grandifiorum, &c, seldom produce any seed. Carduus arvensis

140 ORIGINAL ARTICLES.

may often be observed in great numbers for hundreds of yards along a
roadside, all of one sex, evidently all from suckers, originating, perhaps,
many years back in a single individual. In like manner, an individual
bramble will, in the course of years, spread through a whole wood ; a
fragment of coltsfoot or couch grass infest large fields ; or JSlodea Ca-
nadensis fill our canals, though not a single seedling be raised.

One of the greatest difficulties in arriving at a just conclusion as to
the value to be attached to intermediate forms, is owing to the doubts
which still hang over the question of hybridity. The existence of hy-
brids in the vegetable kingdom, less perfect in their nature than true
species, analogous to the mule among animals, has at all times been a
popular notion ; and wild plants, having some resemblance to cultivated
or useful ones, but less perfect in respect of the qualities sought from
them, have in most countries been stigmatised as bastards. Linnseus
corrected many of these popular errors which had crept into the scien-
tific nomenclature of the day ; but he still gave his sanction to the idea
of the hybrid origin of certain species, by adopting the term as the spe-
cific name in certain cases, without, however, probably having given the
matter much consideration. Since his time it has been shown that his
Chelidonium hybridum, Vioia hybrids,, Campanula hybrida, Chenopo-
dium hybridum, &c, are genuine, substantive species ; and the existence
of hybrids in a state of nature has been denied by several botanists, and
admitted only with great reservations by some even of the most distin-
guished ones of the present day. Others, on the contrary, of our most
acute observers, having acquired convincing evidence of natural hybri-
dity in a few cases, have generalized their conclusions ; they have sup-
posed natural hybrids to be of constant and frequent occurrence ; and
they have ascribed to this cause alone the majority of variations from
the supposed typical forms cf species, or even attributed to original hy-
bridisations the multitude of nearly allied, but constant species, in seve-
ral of the largest genera.

That wild hybrids do exist, I had already convincing evidence from
personal observation during the years 1825 and 1826, when my atten-
tion was specially directed to the search after them in the Pyrenees
and the South of France; and the proofs brought forward by other
observers are not to be resisted. But the cases are very few, and it re-
quires great caution before we can attribute to this cause the appearance
of individuals of a species showing some approach in their characters
to some other species. In Western Europe, there are but six genera
in which I have myself been able to collect satisfactory proofs of na-
tural hybrids, viz., Cistus (including Helianthemum), Geum, Saxifraga,
Gentiana, Verbascum, and Digitalis. We are also bound to admit on the
authority of other observers, at least four more, viz., Epilobium, Carduus
(including Cirsium), Salix, and Narcissus, and perhaps also Centaurea,
Erica, Rumex, and Polygonum. The supposed hybrids in Viola, Medi-
cago, Primula, if cross-breeds at all, are probably between varieties of
one species, not between two species. The cases adduced in Serapias,
Aceras, and Orchis, require much farther investigation, especially now

BENTHAM ON THE SPECIES AND GENERA OF PLANTS. 141

that it is known how singular are the anomalies which occasionally
break out in the flowers of some Orchidese, where hyhridity is quite out
of the question. The wild hybrids described in Dianthus, Galium,
Hieracium, and Stachys, appear to me to be exceedingly doubtful ; and
in the single alleged instance among Gramineae, that of the hybrid
between JEgilops and Triticum, one of the parents at least is in a culti-
vated state. We must also bear in mind the observation of C. F.
Gaertner, how numerous are the genera, where several nearly- allied
species grow together in the greatest abundance all over Europe, and
are never known to hybridise. Such are Ranunculus acris, repens, and
bulhosus ; Brassica Sinapistrum and nigrum ; Stellaria Holodea and
graminea ; Geranium inolle, pusillum, and rotundifolium ; Potentilla
argentea, verna, reptans, and anserina, &c, &c.

Admitting, however, that in the extensive and diversified Flora of
Europe, wild hybrids have been observed in some twenty to twenty-
five genera, if we consider that the species in those genera which will
hybridise are but few ; that the individuals raised are always very few,
and often isolated ; that they are either not reproduced in a second
generation, or their offspring is a further approach to the parent species ;
and that even two individuals sprung directly from the same two
parent species generally differ quite as much from each other as from
one of their parents; we shall find it very difficult to believe in the
permanent establishment of wild hybrid intermediate races, distin-
guished by positive characters ; and we cannot but reprobate the modern
practice of introducing into Floras and systematic works so-called hybrid
species, races, or varieties, with a pretended diagnosis, which are, in
fact, nothing but descriptions of individuals. The reader is thus misled ;
for the chances are that the diagnosis will not apply to any fresh in-
dividual he may find of the same hybrid. A mere indication in the
Flora or other work, under each parent species, of the existence or
suspected existence of hybrids with such and such other species, is
always sufficient for all legitimate purposes.

None of the above observations apply to artificial hybrids, the sub-
ject of so much careful experiment on the part of W. Herbert, C. F.
Gaertner, A. Braun, Naudin, and others, whose labours have done much
towards elucidating the physiology of hybrids in general. But the
plants thus experimented upon were placed in exceptional circumstances;
and the results obtained bear but indirectly on the evidences of wild
hybridity, or are often indeed calculated in some measure to mislead.
The fact that artificial impregnation between certain species can be
effected with great facility, is no proof that these species, or others allied
to them, are the more apt to produce hybrids in a wild state. It is well
known, for instance, how numerous are our garden hybrids in the
genus Erica. When I worked up that genus for the Prodromus, I
had before me wild specimens from various collectors of almost every
Cape species, and often in considerable numbers, including the original
specimens of Masson, Mven, and others, from whom were obtained the
majority of our garden forms ; I examined them all with great care, as

142 ORIGINAL ARTICLES.

well as nearly complete sets of our then cultivated varieties, pure or
hybrid, from four of our largest living collections, and thus acquired
a tolerable idea of the characteristic features assumed by hybrids in
this genus. Yet among the wild plants there was only one, in an old
collection of Roxburgh's, that had the slightest appearance of a hybrid;
and among European ones, the only instance I am aware of, is that
mentioned by Hewett Watson, of the Cornish hybrids, between JE.
ciliaris and E. Tetralix. So in the genus Diantlius, according to C. P.
Gaertner, artificial hybrids are very readily produced, and are more fer-
tile than those of almost any other plants, and yet wild hybrids are
very rare. Lecoq, it is true, speaks of hybrids between D. Monspessulasnus
and D. Seguieri as being very abundant in the Montdore, and certainly
these two species are, in that locality, very variable, but not more so than
I have observed them in the Pyrenees, Provence, &c, when growing
separately.

The apparent' permanence given by cultivation to abnormal or in-
termediate races has afforded a plausible argument against the supposed
constancy of the limits assigned to species in nature. The manner in
which the Cape Pelargoniums, the South American Verhenas and Pe-
tunias, &c, have produced varieties without end, blending the original
species together in inextricable confusion, is well known ; and gardeners
reckon with tolerable certainty on reproducing, by seed, the numerous
varieties of our kitchen-garden annuals. But, as in the case of artificial
hybrids, these plants are then placed in an anomalous condition, in which
they are maintained by cultivation only. Restore them to the condi-
tions of a wild growth, leave them exposed to all those obstacles which
nature opposes to their multiplication, and they will soon yield to the
more hardy or more favoured genuine forms, and gradually perish with-
out being reproduced. This temporary character, when wild, may be
observed in all the extraordinary aberrations from the common form,
however healthy the individuals may appear, such as Orchis pyrami-
dalis with spurless flowers, or Linaria vulgaris, with five spurs ; Helian-
themicm vulgare, or JVarcissus juncifolius, with linear or divided petals;
or Stellaria Holostea, with no petals at all, &c. ; they are none of them
perpetuated ; they cannot resist the immense chances there always are
against the offspring of any one individual plant ever coming to per-
fection.*

To sum up the foregoing remarks : — When a plant is observed ap-
parently allied to some known species, but differing in one or more cha-
racters hitherto unobserved or unrecorded in that species, before deciding

* As a familiar instance of the disproportionate chances against the success of any
individual seed in a wild pjant, take the foxglove {Digitalis purpurea). It will often
ripen 200 capsules, and even above twice that number have been counted on one
plant, and the number of good seeds I have found in one capsule have varied from 800
to 1200. Taking, however, the ave-age number of good seeds shed by every plant as
only 100,000 ; as the average number of foxgloves in a given district remains the same
year after year and century after century, we have only one plant coming to perfection

BENTHAM ON THE SPECIES AND GENERA OF PLANTS. 143

whether it be a distinct species or a mere variety, the points to be con-
sidered, independently of direct experiment, will be chiefly the follow-
ing :—

Are the distinctive characters such as can be accounted for by
station, climate, or other known influences, of which I have enumerated
several in my Handbook ? (Introd. p. 31 and 32.)

Are the circumstances under which it was growing, and its general
aspect, such as to suggest its being a hybrid between the allied and some
other species ?

Are the distinctive characters such as are known to occur in mere
varieties of other species, more especially of such as are systematically
allied to the one in question ?

Is the plant in question, an isolated individual (including in the same
category any number of individuals naturally propagated from a single
one by runners, suckers, bulbs, &c); or has it been observed in more or
less abundance in any variety of stations over any considerable inde-
pendent geographical area, or in any important part of the area of the
allied species ?

Is the distinctive character relied on confined to a single organ, or is
it more or less accompanied by differences in other organs of the plant ;
and, if so, how far does the plant retain all the characters in all the dif-
ferent stations and localities where it has been observed ?

Have intermediates between the plant and its allied species been
sought for in any considerable portion of the area of the latter, and espe-
cially in those countries where it is most liable to variations ? And, if
such intermediates exist, what is their relative number, and how far do
they vary, or pass one into another in all, or any, and which, of the
points in which the plant in question differs from its allied species ?

It is only in proportion as the evidence on all these points is full, satis-
factory, and reliable, that our decisions on the value of a species can be
fair, independently of any want of tact, experience, powers of observa-
tion or judgment, which we are all liable to; and not to mention the
cases of but too frequent occurrence where ignorance, a false pride, va-
nity, a love of controversy, a desire of flattering, or even mercenary
motives, have influenced the reckless splitting or over-hasty reunion of
species.

With regard to direct experiment in aid of inductive reasoning, it
has been said that cultivation is a sure and easy test of the identity or
distinctness of species ; and nothing is more common than to find as an
argument in support of a " critical" species, that it has been growing
for many years in a garden, always retaining its distinctive characters.

for every 99,999 that perish either as seeds or young plants. It is often very curious
to observe the luxuriant crops of crowded seedlings of various plants in autumn, which
totally disappear before the following flowering season ; and year after year, an attentive
examination of the moors and heaths in many parts of Western England will disclose
a profusion of seedling oaks, one, two, or three years old, not one of which ever attains
the size and age even of a bush.

144 ORIGINAL AETICLES.

But the results thus obtained are liable to very great fallacies, unless the
experiment is followed out in all its bearings, with many precautions
rarely attended to ; and what is supposed to furnish irresistible proofs
of permanency of character, when inquired into, will often be found to
add nothing at all to the arguments derived from observation.

In the first place, it is a very common practice, in thus testing by
cultivation the permanency of character in a plant, to remove it bodily
to a garden, and there to propagate it by suckers, cuttings, or other
modes of division — an experiment which may, indeed, show the imme-
diate effects of soil, climate, or other extraneous influences on the indi-
vidual— but, as a test of value between species and variety, it can be of
no avail. It is the very method adopted by gardeners for perpetuating
individual variations. The only mode in which the test can really bear
upon the question, is by sowing the seed, and observing the results in
future generations. And in this proceeding it is not enough to raise a
few plants in one spot, for two or three generations ; for such a course
would prove our varieties of kitchen-garden annuals to be all distinct
species, which we all know is not the fact ; the cultivation must be on a
large scale, under circumstances of soil, climate, &c, as varied as the
plant will bear, and for many generations ; and, after all, the proofs of
distinctness can scarcely be absolute, for they consist, as it were, in
proving a negative. The object is not to show how long a particular
form can be made to endure, but that it will always endure, in spite of
external influences or other accidents — that it will not vary under any
circumstances, or at any time. The cultivation must be that of the gar-
dener, whose object is to raise new varieties — not of the curator, desirous
of keeping his botanic garden usefully cropped, and correctly named — still
less of the botanist, who seeks to uphold a species he has set up. The
former sows extensively in different localities, in order to have the
greater chance of accidental aberration ; he carefully watches his seed-
lings as they grow up, and selects his seeds for the next generation from
such plants as show the slightest tendency to vary in the wished-for
direction. The curator, on the contrary, anxious to keep his types true,
if he selects the seed at all, takes it from the most healthy, normal, and
characteristic individuals.

To illustrate the very slender grounds upon which botanists of con-
siderable and well-deserved reputation will occasionally adduce the re-
sults of cultivation as convincing proofs of specific distinctness, let us
select from Grenier and Godron's Mora an instance taken from a genus
worked up with great care, by one of the most accurate observers of in-
dividual varieties and local races, and whose views as to their reception
as a species M. Grenier entirely adopts. Under Galium spurhwi, he
says, " Cette espece se produisant invariablement de graines sansperdre
aucun de ses caracteres, ne saurait etre confondue avec le G. Aparine." To
justify so sweeping and positive an assertion, we must suppose that he,
or some one on whose exactness he has implicit reliance, has sown in
several successive years each of the three varieties he mentions of G.
spiirium, besides the smaller forms of what he considers the true G.

BENTHAM ON THE SPECIES AND GENEBA OF PLANTS. 145

aparine ; that he has raised them in considerable quantities ; that he has
each year selected his seeds from such of his own seedlings as have
shown any tendency to variation ; and that this process has been carried
on in different soils, in different situations, in different climates, and at
different seasons. It is scarcely to be imagined that this has been done
for so very uninteresting a plant ; and yet, if any one of these precau-
tions has been neglected, it cannot be said to be proved that the plant
will never lose any of its characters. And, after all, what are these
characters, so invariably reproduced ? Not the want of hairs at the
nodes, nor the narrowness of the leaves, for these he admits to be varia-
ble in his G. tenerum — besides, that such hairiness is often scarcely per-
ceptible in the stoutest specimens of G. aparine — nor yet the gla-
brous or hispid fruit, for that is admitted to occur in both his species.
There remain, first, the size of the plant, not more than a foot in G. spu-
rium, often above three feet in G. aparine ; but to which would he re-
fer the numerous specimens occurring in some localities from 1 to 2
feet high ? 2ndly. The articulations, swollen in G. aparine, but not in
G. spurium, a mere result of the luxuriance of the former. 3dly.
The size of the fruit, 4 to 5 millimetres in G. aparine, 3 or 4 times
smaller, consequently 1 to 1J millimetres, in G. spurium. To verify
this character, I have measured the fruits of numerous specimens, living
and dried, of both forms, and I have never found the diameter quite so
little as 2 millimetres ; but from that size I have measured every inter-
mediate from half to half millimetres, up to 5 millim., the largest I have
met with. And 4thly. The hairs of the fruit, rising from a small tubercle
in G. aparine, and no such tubercles in G. spurium. As to this point,
if we take the hairy-fruited varieties of each form, I confess myself un-
able to discover any difference but what depends on size ; the larger the
fruit, and the larger the hairs, the more prominent are the tubercles at
the base. Upon the whole, as far as my own experience goes, the re-
sults of cultivation constitute an item, but one item only, and that often
a fallacious one, among the evidences on which the permanency of cha-
racter is to be judged by inductive reasoning.

Even the proof of specific identity by cultivation is often liable to
error. Such experiments are often several years in carrying on ; it is
not to be expected that they can be daily watched during the whole of
that period, and all who have had the charge of gardens must be aware
of the mishaps which may occur during a short absence, without being
directly noticed — such as labels accidentally or intentionally destroyed
or misplaced, or the sown seed failing, or the seedling perishing, and re-
placed accidentally by some common allied species or variety. The ab-
normal circumstances in which a plant under cultivation is placed, may
also induce an apparent approach to some other species, without any
real alteration of essential character. I have already instanced the
Trifolium repens and hyhridum, as one in which the supposed proof of
identity by cultivation, notwithstanding my confidence in the experi-
menter, produces no conviction in my mind ; and it is only with great

vol. i. — n. u. e, u

146 ORIGINAL ARTICLES.

hesitation that I have admitted the specific identity of the Primrose and
the Cowslip, although several experimenters are stated to have raised
the one from the other. In all cases, proof by cultivation seems to re-
quire some confirmation by the observation of wild nature.

With regard to genera and orders, I need not here repeat the
views I laid before the Linnean Society on a former occasion (" Journ.
Linn. Soc. Bot.," v. ii., p. 31), on the importance of maintaining,
for the convenience of language and study, large genera and or-
ders, in preference to breaking them up into small independent ones.
But the opinions I have on that and other occasions expressed, that
genera, as such, have no independent existence in nature, have been in
some measure misunderstood. Par be it from me to deny that groups
of species exist in nature, resembling each other more than they do the
species of any other group — that some of these groups, consisting of two,
three, or any number of species, are in nature distinguished from all
others by a number of well-marked characters, or that a single species
may be so isolated ; whilst others can only be separated by single or un-
important or variable characters — that these groups may be collected
into groups of a higher order, consisting in like manner of two, three,
or any number of smaller ones, similarly distinguished in nature by
more or less marked or important characters — that this synthetical
process, always following natural indications, may be carried on till
we arrive at the two or three great primary divisions of the vegetable
kingdom — and that in all the stages very great differences exist in
nature in the definiteness of the groups established, and in the relative
importance of the characters distinguishing them ; but that, generally
speaking, the characters of a large group are more important than those
which only distinguish its minor subordinates ; for on these principles, —
on a nice, appreciation of affinities (or calculation of resemblances and
differences), and of the importance of characters, as indicated in nature, —
depends the whole value of a natural classification. What I meant to
assert was, that nature has not assigned everywhere precise definite
limits to the groups she has indicated; nor has she fixed upon two stages
in the synthetical process more definite than any others, to be marked
out, the one for genera, the others for orders. These are often selected
and limited, arbitrarily, though necessarily, for the convenience of
system, language, and reference. The characters of plants are, indeed,
very different in importance ; but such differences are relative, not abso-
lute ; we cannot say that certain characters are of ordinal importance,
whilst certain others are only of tribual, generic, or sectional value.
Nor does any one character retain the same importance throughout the
vegetable kingdom. There is no test by which we can determine
whether two groups formed in different parts of the field of classifica-
tion are co-equal in value, or whether the one be of a higher grade
than the other.

It becomes, therefore, necessary to consider what constitutes the
relative importance in characters, how far we can safely be guided by

BENTHAM ON THE SPECIES AND GENEKA OF PLANTS. 147

it in the formation of genera, orders, or other groups, and when it is
that we run the risk of being led astray by the too close adherence to
the rules laid down.

The most important character, in plants, will always be that which
in the greatest number of species (or groups of species) is the most con-
stantly accompanied by the greatest general resemblances among those
species, and differences from all others — that which collects into the
same group species showing the greatest general conformity in the
structure and economy of all their parts, and which may, therefore, be
supposed to be the most uniformly influenced by or acting upon the
specific constitution of plants.

This question of the relative importance of characters has been fre-
quently discussed, especially by French botanists; and by none has
it been so clearly put as by the elder De Candolle, in his admirable
" Theorie Elementaire." He there lays it down as a rule, that the
value of a character is in the compound ratio of the importance of the or-
gan it is derived from, and of the point of view in which that organ is
considered.

But, in regard to the first element, how are we to determine the
relative importance of organs ? De Candolle indicates two modes : a
priori, by the consideration of the functions they perform, or the part
they take in the vital phenomena ; a posteriori, by the observation of
the extent to which they prevail, the number of species in which they
exist. The former mode has been the one eagerly pursued or at-
tempted by the greater number of generalizing botanists ; the latter is
that which, after all, has practically led to the best classifications ; and
though characterized by De Candolle as " tres ingenieux mais peu ap-
plicable," is really that which he has himself followed in the best parts
of his systematic works.

These two modes of argument correspond to those arguments from
final causes, and from observation of facts, which have divided zoologists.
But in plants we are much less able even than in animals to trace the
modifications of form and structure to any final causes. The animal
goes after, and selects his food ; and the whole economy of his structure
is modified according to the nature of that food, and where and how it
is to be obtained. The plant is stationary and must take what food
comes within its reach ; and that food, and the mode of absorbing it, is
very similar in all species ; nor can we discover any other final cause
why one set of plants, for instance, should always have alternate and
another opposite leaves — why in Digitalis purpurea there should be
on an average 1200 seeds fecundated and ripened for every two pair
of stamens, whilst in several Acacias there should be 10,000 stamens
to every head of flowers, which sets and ripens some half-dozen or a
dozen seeds only. And yet characters like these are, in some instances,
so constantly accompanied by so many general resemblances as clearly
to distinguish natural groups of several thousand species.

The importance of organs, also, in another way, admits of two dis-
tinct qualifications, not always concurrent : physiological importance

148 ORIGINAL ARTICLES.

and systematic importance. The compounding these two applications
of the word is apt to lead into some fallacies. De Candolle, for in-
stance, after showing the impossibility of establishing any comparison of
relative importance in the functions of the organs of reproduction and
those of vegetation, but explaining why it is that the former practically
supply better characters than the latter, lays down the following scale
of progression in the importance of these reproductive organs : —

1. L'embryon qui est le but de tout ;

2. Les organes sexuels, qui en sont le moyen ;

3. Les enveloppes de l'embryon ;

4. Les enveloppes des organes sexuels ;

5. Les nectaires ou organes accessoires.

But, in the first place, the embryo in its perfect state can no longer
be called an organ of the parent plant. Until it is fully formed, it sup-
plies no characters. "When once formed, it has no function to perform
till it commences life as a new independent being. And this is the
great reason of the importance of the characters it then supplies. It is
a whole plant, not an organ of a plant.

Secondly, the same arguments which show the impossibility of com-
paring the importance of the functions of the reproductive and vegeta-
tive organs, would apply to the flower (or ' les organes sexuels') and the
fruit (comprised in 'les enveloppes de l'embryon') — the apparatus for
producing the embryo and the apparatus for bringing it to perfection —
and, again, in the flower, between the male and the female organs ; for
all these are equally essential for completing the series of vital pheno-
mena which continue the species. It is true that, exceptionally, em-
bryos may be formed and brought to perfection without normal fertili-
sation, but so also the whole series may be dispensed with, and plants
are reproduced by buds without passing through the embryo state ; but
in all phanerogamic species, for their normal reproduction, the whole
series, the male organs, the female organs, and the organs of maturation,
are equally essential.

Perhaps all that can be said of the relative importance of organs with
reference to their functions is this : That the so-called essential organs,
the sexual organs, and the organs of maturation among the reproductive,
and the perfect leaves or foliaceous surfaces, and the root-fibres among
the nutritive, stand first ; the protective organs, such as floral and fruit
envelopes, bud-scales, &c, occupy the second rank; and accessory organs,
including epidermal scales, are the lowest. But here again the relative
importance of these organs is not proved by a priori arguments, derived
from the necessity of their presence for performing those functions, but
from the observation of the degree of constancy of their being so em-
ployed. Cryptogamic plants have sometimes none, sometimes not all,
of the organs of the first degree; yet nutrition, fertilisation, and repro-
duction, take place, but by other means, with another class of organs.
And had we observed that, in phanerogamous plants, fertilisation of the
ovule never took place unless the sexual organs were enclosed in floral

BENTHAM ON THE SPECIES AND GENERA OF PLANTS. 149

envelopes, we should have classed the latter among the essential organs
of the first class.

The importance of characters, in as far as derived from the impor-
tance of the organs they relate to, would follow the same gradation, — ob-
servation (not theory) teaching us, however, to place those derived from
the reproductive organs of each degree before the corresponding ones
derived from the nutritive organs ; and those derived from the embryo
or young plant, more especially at the moment of germination, above all.

But the second element in the ratio of value of characters, the
point of view in which the organs are considered, is one which experience
shows to be often far more important than the nature of the organ itself,
and the neglect of which contributes more than anything to the dege-
neracy of an apparently natural classification into a purely artificial one.
The principal characters which an organ, or set of organs, can thus sup-
ply, and their relative importance, are admirably expounded by De Can-
dolle, in his Taxonomie, div. I., chap. 3. He there establishes the fol-
lowing scale of gradation, in which I have ventured to make some slight
modification in expression, but which I think should never be lost sight
of by the systematist who has any pretension to establish natural
groups.

1. The real presence or absence of organs (parts of organs, or sets of
organs), independent of adherence or accidental abortion.

2. Their arrangement, or relative position, and numbers, as affecting
or indicating the general plan upon which the plant is constructed.

3. Their external form, relative size, continuity or articulation, &c,
all subordinate to the preceding class, only acquiring importance when
indicative of a result from general arrangement.

4. Their functions and sensible qualities, — the results, rather than
the causes, of the preceding modifications.

By combining this scale of relative importance with that derived
from the nature of the organs themselves, it might be possible to frame a
general scale of relative importance of characters, which, with other
rules suggested by the observation of the comparative prevalence of
particular characters, might assist in judging of the expediency of de-
scribing as a new genus or order any newly-discovered plant which
does not come precisely within the limits previously fixed for any known
genus or order. But, in the grouping together any number of species
or genera already known, the relative value of the characters relied upon
should be tested, at every step, by a comparison with all the other fea-
tures of the plants. The blind adherence to a pre-established scale, in
distributing into genera the species of a large order, renders such a clas-
sification purely artificial. It had been ascertained that the relative
arrangement of the radicle and cotyledons in the embryo of Cruciferce,
the relative prominence of the ribs of the fruit, and the number and
arrangement of the vittas in Umlelliferce, the various modifications of
the pappus in Composite, were in many cases remarkably constant, not
only in species, but in many very natural genera. But by taking these
characters as absolute, and considering every slight modification of them

150 OEIGINAL AETICLES.

as of generic importance, many of the most natural groups in those or-
ders have been broken up, and split down almost to single species, classed
into purely artificial tribes and sub -tribes. So, also, a character gene-
rally important may, in some instances, separate a single species from a
large order with which it may agree in every other respect. The dis-
memberment of such exceptional species from that order, — as, for in-
stance, that olPhryma from Verbenacese, — becomes then purely artificial,
and contrary to all principles laid down for natural classification.

This introduction of artificial arrangements, under the disguise of a
strict adherence to the rules of the natural system, is much promoted
by a tendency to which we systematists are all very liable. It has hap-
pened to most close observers to have on some occasion brought for-
ward some character till then comparatively neglected, but which has
proved to be eminently useful for establishing natural groups in par-
ticular genera, orders, or classes. Such a character is then apt to as-
sume an undue importance in the observer's mind, and to be applied by
him indiscriminately throughout the vegetable kingdom. The arrange-
ment of the parts of the floral whorls with relation to the main axis of
inflorescence, the aestivation of the floral envelopes, the relative attach-
ment of the floral whorls, and consequent modifications in form of the
torus, disk, or floral receptacle ; the numbers absolute and relative of the
parts in the several floral whorls, the position of the ovary with relation
to the rest of the flower, that of the ovules with relation to the ovary,
the structure of the fruit, and even the most important of all, the rela-
tion of the embryo to the seed, and, the seat of deposit of starch for sup-
plying the first nutriment to the growing embryo — whether as albumen
around it, or in its cotyledons, or in the intermediate point (the collet)
between the radicle and cotyledons — all characters which more or less
generally mark out large and highly natural orders, have nevertheless,
each in their turn, on some occasion or other, been applied too strictly,
so as to dissever groups otherwise most natural.

On the other hand, however closely we follow natural indications,
our system must be to a certain degree artificial. A purely natural me-
thod of arranging species and genera is impossible ; at least, none has
ever been brought forward. The affinities and cross-affinities of plants
are so complicated and intertwined, that we have no method of repre-
senting them either by a linear series, or by mapping them out on a
plane surface. Many of the most natural groups have no definite limits ;
and yet, to form any clear idea of them for the purpose of study, we
must assign limits. The truly German idea of taking one species or ge-
nus as a normal type of a genus or order, and grouping others around it
as more perfect, or reduced, or collaterally aberrant forms, leads to no
practical results. However well it may read in chamber speculations,
it produces nothing but confusion when applied to the actual grouping
of species. There is no plant which arguments like those usually
brought forward may not show equally well to be an aberrant form of
almost any number of different types. The absurdity of such a system
appears to me never to have been so fully exemplified as in an elaborate

CLELAND ON THE MAMMALIAN AXIS, ATLAS, AND OCCIPITAL BONE. 151

work received whilst writing out these pages, in which, for instance,
Begoniaceae, Melastomaceae, Gesneriaceae, Burnianniaceae, andOrchideae,
are collected into one series, whilst Memecyleae, Bignoniaceae, and Iri-
deae, are far removed from them.

It appears to me, therefore, that whilst in an artificial or analytical
system for finding out the name of a plant, one prominent character is
selected to mark out each division ; in a natural or synthetical system,
on the contrary, for the arrangement and study of plants, the affinities
according to which they are grouped should be judged of by the com-
bination of as many and as constant characters as possible, derived from
all parts of the .plants ; but that, in both cases, characters must be as-
signed. " Character non facit genus," it is true; but a genus without
a character is of no assistance to the mind of the naturalist.

XYI. — On the Serial Homologies of the Articular Surfaces of the
Mammalian Axis, Atlas, and Occipital Bone. By John Cleland,
M.D., Demonstrator of Anatomy in the University of Edinburgh.

[Read before the Royal Physical Society of Edinburgh, Nov., I860.]

In works on human anatomy it has been customary to compare the arti-
cular surfaces of the atlas, and the superior articular surfaces of the
axis, with those of the oblique processes of other vertebrae, as if they
were homologous, notwithstanding the apparently anomalous manner in
which, according to that view, the first and second spinal nerves must
be considered as emerging from the spinal canal. The circumstances
which have led to this comparison being made, are merely the rapid di-
minution in size of the intervertebral discs from the. thoracic region up
to the axis, and a general similarity of appearance between the articular
surfaces of the atlas and axis and those of succeeding vertebrae : and
though the impropriety of this comparison has been exposed in very ex-
plicit terms by Prof. Henle,* there is still room for a few remarks as to
the precise parts of other vertebrae to which the surfaces in question
correspond.

In order to arrive at a just conclusion upon this subject, we shall
find it advantageous to examine the atlas in the bird. In it we find on
the posterior aspect a pair of true oblique processes passing backwards,
to articulate above the intervertebral foramina with a corresponding
pair of processes of the axis, similar to those of succeeding vertebrae ;
while inferiorly there is a cartilaginous surface which forms, with
the body of the axis and its odontoid process, a joint similar to those be-
tween the succeeding bodies of vertebrae. On the anterior aspect of the

* Henle, Handbuch der Syst. Anat. des Menschen, I., p. 42.

152 ORIGINAL ARTICLES.

atlas there are no articular processes like the posterior pair ; and there
is presented for articulation with the condyle of the occipital bone, a
single surface, exactly corresponding in extent with that which articu-
lates with the body of the axis. As regards the occipital condyle, its
constitution will be best understood by looking at the quite similar con-
dyle of the occipital of the turtle. In it the middle and lower portions
are formed by the basi-occipital, in precisely the same manner as the
body of a vertebra is formed principally by the centrum, but has its
superior angles derived from the arch. Thus, there can be no doubt that
the atlo-occipital articulation in birds, as well as the inferior atlo-axoid
articulation, belongs to the same series as those between the bodies of
the succeeding vertebrae.

It remains for us to show that they also correspond to the atlo-occipital
and atlo-axoid articulations in mammals : and that they do so will rea-
dily appear, on making a more careful examination of the anterior arti-
cular surface of the atlas of the bird in the recent condition. It presents
the form of a cup perforated by a small foramen, through which a liga-
ment passes from the tip of the odontoid process to the occipital con-
dyle, and the part of the cup which lies above the foramen is formed by
a transverse ligament. This transverse ligament corresponds to those
which pass from side to side of the bodies of other vertebrae and are at-
tached to the superior angles of their anterior aspects — those angles
which are derived from the arches.* ]STow, in mammalia, not only is
the function of the tranverse ligament of the atlas the same as in birds ;
but in many of them the heads of the ribs of opposite sides are united
above the intervertebral discs by transverse ligaments (ligamenta con-
jugalia costarum), which very obviously correspond to the ligaments
just mentioned on the vertebrae of the bird ; for, though they do not,
like them, pass from angle to angle of the bodies of the vertebrae, they
are attached to structures interpolated between these angles. It appears,
therefore, that the transverse ligaments of the atlas and other vertebrae
in birds, and the ligamentum conjugale costarum, and transverse liga-
ment of the atlas in mammals, are all homologous structures : and, in
that case, the only difference between the atlo-occipital articulation in
the mammal and in the bird is, that while in the latter it is single, in
the former it is divided into two lateral parts. But this is not an im-
portant distinction ; for in the atlo-axoid articulation, we find the ar-
rangement in many mammals, as in the human subject, similar to that
of the atlo-occipital; while in others, as in the sheep, a single joint ex-
tends across the middle line exactly as in the bird.

The serial correspondences of the vertebral articulations are very well
illustrated in the human foetus. The articular surfaces of the oblique
processes are situated immediately behind the transverse processes, and

* I have described and figured the ligament here referred to in a paper " On the
Structure, Actions, and Morphological Relations of the Ligamentum Conjugale Costa-
rum," in the Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal, April, 1 859.

CLELAND ON THE MAMMALIAN AXIS, ATLAS, AND OCCIPITAL BONE. 153

in the cervical region the arches are bulged outwards at the points where
they are placed (Fig. 5). The axis is shaped altogether like one of the
succeeding vertebrae, except only that the odontoid process is super-
added to the centrum : and the bulging of the arch on each side behind
the transverse process is well marked, and bears the inferior articular
surface on its under side. On the other hand, the superior articular
surface is placed partly on the odontoid process, but principally on the
most anterior part of the arch, viz. that part which, in all the succeed-
ing vertebras, forms the posterior angle of the body (Fig. 3). So also
on the anterior extremity of the arch are placed the articular surfaces
(both superior and inferior) of the atlas (Fig. 4) ; and also, in the dor-
sal region, the surfaces for the heads of the ribs. The occipital con-
dyles are placed upon the most anterior parts of the arch of the occipital
bone, and to a small extent upon the centrum.

The foregoing examination of vertebral articulations leads us to ob-
serve, that, when surfaces for a synovial joint are present upon the body
of a vertebra, however little of the body they may cover, they are never
absent from those angles which are formed by the arches.

The synovial articulations between the bodies of vertebras in mam-
mals are arranged in the following manner : In the dorsal region are the
synovial capsules for the heads of the ribs, which always occupy the angles
of the bodies, but are also, in many animals, united across the middle
line between the intervertebral disc and the conjugal ligament; while in
some cases, as in the horse and the sheep, a small line of cartilage is
stretched along the superior margin of the posterior of the two vertebras
concerned in each joint. In the cervical region in the human subject,
the minute joints described by Luschka,*" are situated between those
parts of the bodies which are formed by the arches. Lastly, in the
atlo-axoid and atlo-occipital articulations, the principal parts of the
articular surfaces are placed upon those parts of the arches which cor-
respond to the angles of the bodies of succeeding vertebrae, while the
intervertebral discs have disappeared.

I may here remark that, if the odontoid process be regarded as the
centrum of the atlas, — a view which seems to be supported by its very
large comparative size in the young condition, long before the anterior
tubercle of the atlas makes its appearance — then we must recognise in
the odontoid ligaments the terminal member of the series to which the
transverse ligament of the atlas and the ligamenta conjugalia belong :
and indeed the arrangement of their fibres, some of which are continu-
ous from side to side, is favourable to this supposition, and reminds one
of the ligamentum conjugate in the sheep.

Note. — Since writing the above, my attention has been called to
Rathke's work "Ueber die Entwickelung der Schildkroten," in which
(page 77), the view that the odontoid process is the centrum of the atlas
is strenuously urged, and strong evidence brought forward in its favour.

* Luschka, Die Halbgelenke des Mensohlichen Kdrpprs, 18J8, p. 71, and Tab. I.,
fig. 1.

VOL. I. N. H. R. X

154

OEIGINAL AETICLES.

See also "Owen, On the Homologies of the Vertebrate Skeleton/' page
93. Eathke points out that the ligamentum suspensorium, which, in
the birds and higher reptilia unites the odontoid process to the occipital
condyle, is the serial representative of the intervertebral discs behind.
He found that in most chelonians it consisted of true cartilage, and that
in certain birds it was composed of fibro-cartilage. This view of the
ligamentum suspensorium is quite consistent with the suggestion which
I have offered, that the ligamenta alaria are homologous with the trans-
verse ligament.

The large portion of the cup on the anterior aspect of the chelonian
atlas, which is formed by the expanded inferior extremities of the arch,
illustrates very well the unity of plan upon which the articular surfaces
of the atlas are formed in animals having one occipital condyle, and
those which have two. This will be seen by comparing the woodcuts
below.

When, in the human subject, a process of bone passes up from the
arch of the atlas, to meet the superior articular surface and convert the
groove for the nerve and vertebral artery into a foramen, the process in
question is a true oblique process. If, in addition, we were to imagine
the tip of the transverse process thickened and projecting upwards to
meet the superior articular surface, we should then have presented to us
the condition of parts found in the pig and the sheep.

Fig. 1 . Atlas of a young Chelonia virgata — after Eathke. a. The
arch. b. Osseous centre of the tubercle.

Fig. 2. Dorsal vertebra of a young seal, for comparison with the fol-
lowing figures : a. Oblique process. b. Articular surface for head of
rib.

Fig. 3. Superior aspect of the axis of a human foetus, a. The cen-
trum, b. Odontoid process, c. Superior articular surface, d. Bulg-
ing of the arch in the situation of the inferior articular surface.

Fig. 4. Inferior aspect of the atlas of the same subject, a. Articular
surface.

Fig. 5. Cervical vertebra from the same subject, a. Oblique pro-
cess, b. Part of the arch entering into the composition of the body of
the vertebra.

SCHAAFFHAUSEN" OX THE CEANIA OF THE ANCIENT HACES OF MAN. 155

XVII. — On the Ceania of the Most Ancient Races of Man. By-
Professor D. Schaaffhausen, of Bonn. (From Midler's Archiv., 1858,
pp. 453. With Remarks, and original Figures, taken from a Cast
of the Neanderthal Cranium. By George Busk, F. R. S., &c.

In the early part of the year 1857, a human skeleton was discovered in
a limestone cave in the Neanderthal, near Hochdal, between Diisseldorf
and Elberfeld. Of this, however, I was unable to procure more than a
plaster cast of the cranium taken at Elberfeld, from which I drew
up an account of its remarkable conformation, which was, in the first
instance, read on the 4th of February, 1857, at the meeting of the
Lower Rhine Medical and Natural History Society, at Bonn.* Sub-
sequently Dr. Fuhlrott, to whom science is indebted for the preserva-
tion of these bones, which were not at first regarded as human, and into
whose possession they afterwards came, brought the cranium from El-
berfeld to Bonn, and entrusted it to me for more accurate anatomical
examination. At the General Meeting of the Natural History Society
of Prussian Rhineland and Westphalia, at Bonn, on the 2nd of June,
1857,f Dr. Fuhlrott himself gave a full account of the locality, and of
the circumstances under which the discovery was made. He was of
opinion that the bones might be regarded as fossil; and in coming to this
conclusion, he laid especial stress upon the existence of dendritic de-
posits with which their surface was covered, and which were first noticed
upon them by Professor Mayer. To this communication I appended a
brief report on the results of my anatomical examination of the bones.
The conclusions at which I arrived were : — 1st. That the extraordinary
form of the skull was due to a natural conformation hitherto not known
to exist, even in the most barbarous races. 2nd. That these remarkable
human remains belonged to a period antecedent to the time of the Celts and
Germans, and were in all probability derived from one of the wild races
of North-western Europe, spoken of by Latin writers ; and which were
encountered as autochthones by the German immigrants. And 3rdly.
That it was beyond doubt that these human relics were traceable to a
period at which the latest animals of the diluvium still existed ; but that
no proof in support of this assumption, nor consequently of their so-
termed fossil condition, was afforded by the circumstances under which
the bones were discovered.

As Dr. Fuhlrott has not yet published his description of these cir-
cumstances, I borrow the following account of them from one of his
letters. " A small cave or grotto, high enough to admit a man, and

* Verhandl. d Naturhist. Vereir.s der preuss. Rheinlande und Westphalens., xiv,
Bonn, 1857.

f lb. Corre;-pondenzb. No. 2.

156 ORIGINAL ARTICLES.

about 15 feet deep from the entrance, which is 7 or 8 feet wide, exists
in the southern wall of the gorge of the Neanderthal, as it is termed,
at a distance of about 100 feet from the Diissel, and about 60 feet
above the bottom of the valley. In its earlier and uninjured condition,
this cavern opened upon a narrow plateau lying in front of it, and from
which the rocky wall descended almost perpendicularly into the river.
It could be reached, though with difficulty, from above. The uneven floor
was covered to a thickness of 4 or 5 feet with a deposit of mud, sparingly
intermixed with rounded fragments of chert. In the removing of this
deposit, the bones were discovered. The skull was first noticed, placed
nearest to the entrance of the cavern ; and further in, the other bones,
lying in the same horizontal plane. Of this I was assured in the most
positive terms by two labourers who were employed to clear out the
grotto, and who were questioned by me on the spot. At first no idea
was entertained of the bones being human ; and it was not till several
weeks after their discovery that they were recognised as such by me,
and placed in security. But, as the importance of the discovery was
not at the time perceived, the labourers were very careless in the col-
lecting, and secured chiefly only the larger bones ; and to this circum-
stance it may be attributed that fragments merely of the probably per-
fect skeleton came into my possession."

My anatomical examination of these bones afforded the following
results : —

The cranium is of unusual size, and of a long-elliptical form. A
most remarkable peculiarity is at once obvious in the extraordinary de-
velopment of the frontal sinuses, owing to which the superciliary ridges,
which coalesce completely in the middle, are rendered so prominent, that
the frontal bone exhibits a considerable hollow or depression above, or
rather behind them, whilst a deep depression is also formed in the situ-
ation of the root of the nose. The forehead is narrow and low, though the
middle and hinder portions of the cranial arch are well developed. Un-
fortunately, the fragment of the skull that has been preserved consists
only of the portion situated above the roof of the orbits and the superior
occipital ridges, which are greatly developed, and almost conjoined so
as to form a horizontal eminence. It includes almost the whole of the
frontal bone, both parietals, a small part of the squamous and the upper-
third of the occipital. The recently fractured surfaces show that the
skull was broken at the time of its disinterment. The cavity holds
16,876 grains of water, whence its cubical contents may be estimated
at 57.64 inches, or 1033.24 cubic centimetres. In making this estima-
tion, the water is supposed to stand on a level with the orbital plate of
the frontal, with the deepest notch in the squamous margin of the pa-
rietal, and with the superior semicircular ridges of the occipital. Esti-
mated in dried millet-seed, the contents equalled 31 ounces, Prussian
Apothecaries' weight. The semicircular line indicating the upper boun-
dary of the attachment of the temporal muscle, though not very strongly
marked, ascends nevertheless to more than half the height of the parietal

8CHAAFJFHAUSEN ON THE CRANIA OE THE ANCIENT RACES OF MAN. 157

bone. On the right superciliary ridge is observable an oblique furrow
or depression, indicative of an injury received during life.* The coronal
and sagittal sutures are on the exterior nearly closed, and on the inside
so completely ossified as to have left no traces whatever, whilst the
lambdoidal remains quite open. The depressions for the Pacchionian
glands are deep and numerous ; and there is an unusually deep vascular
groove immediately behind the coronal suture, which, as it terminates
in a foramen, no doubt transmitted a vena emissaria. The course of
the frontal suture is indicated externally by a slight ridge ; and where
it joins the coronal, this ridge rises into a small protuberance. The
course of the sagittal suture is grooved, and above the angle of the oc-
cipital bone the parietals are depressed.

mm.f

The length of the skull from the nasal
process of the frontal over the ver-
tex to the superior semicircular
lines of the occipital measures, . 303 (300) = 12*0".

Circumference over the orbital ridges
and the superior semicircular lines
of the occipital, 590 (580) = 23-37" or 23".

Width of the frontal from the middle
of the temporal line on one side to
the same point on the opposite, . 104 (114) = 4'1" - 4 '5".

Length of the frontal from the nasal

process to the coronal suture, . 133 (125) = 5-25" - 5".

Extreme width of the frontal sinuses, 25 (23)= 1-0" -09".

Yertical height above a line joining
the deepest notches in the squa-
mous border of the parietals, . . 70 = 2-75".

"Width of hinder part of skull from
one parietal protuberance to the
other, 138(150)= 5-4"- 59".

Distance from the upper angle of the
occipital to the superior semicir-
cular lines, 51 (60)= 1-9"- 2-4".

Thickness of the bone at the parietal

protuberance, 8.

at the angle of the occipital, . 9.

at the superior semicircular line

of the occipital, 10 =0-3".

Besides the cranium, the following boDes have been secured : —
1. Both thigh-bones, perfect. These, like the skull, and all the

* A remark with respect to this depression will be found in the Remarks.

t The numbers in brackets are those which I should assign to the different measures,
as taken from the plaster cast. — G. B.

158 ORIGINAL ARTICLES.

other bones, are characterized by their unusual thickness, and the great
development of all the elevations and depressions for the attachment of
muscles. In the Anatomical Museum at Bonn, under the designation
of " Giant' s-bones," are some recent thigh-bones, with which in thick-
ness the foregoing pretty nearly correspond, although they are shorter.

Giant's bones. Fossil bones.

mm. mm.

Length, 542 = 21-4" . 438 = 17-4".

Diameter of head of femur, . . 54= 2-14" . 53= 2-0".
,, of lower articular end,

from one condyle to the other, 89 = 35" . 87 = 3*4".

„ of femur in the middle, 33= 12" . 30= VI".

2. A perfect right humerus, whose size shows that it belongs to the
thigh-bones.

mm.

Length, 312 = 12-3".

Thickness in the middle, . . 26= 1*0".
Diameter of head, 49 = 1-9".

Also a perfect right radius of corresponding dimensions, and the
upper-third of a right ulna corresponding to the humerus and radius.

3. A left humerus, of which the upper -third is wanting, and which
is so much slenderer than the right as apparently to belong to a distinct
individual; a left ulna, which, though complete, is pathologically de-
formed, the coronoid process being so much enlarged by bony growth,
that flexure of the elbow beyond a right angle must have been impos-
sible ; the anterior fossa of the humerus for the reception of the coronoid
process being also filled up with a similar bony growth. At the same
time, the olecranon is curved strongly downwards. As the bone presents
no sign of rachitic degeneration, it may be supposed that an injury sus-
tained during life was the cause of the anchylosis. When the left ulna
is compared with the right radius, it might at first sight be concluded
that the bones respectively belonged to different individuals, the ulna
being more than half an inch too short for articulation with a corre-
sponding radius. But it is clear that this shortening, as well as the at-
tenuation of the left humerus, are both consequent upon the pathologi-
cal condition above described.

4. A left ilium, almost perfect, and belonging to the femur ; a frag-
ment of the right scapula; the anterior extremity of a rib of the right
side ; and the same part of a rib of the left side ; the hinder part of a
rib of the right side ; and, lastly, two short hinder portions and one
middle portion of ribs, which, from their unusually rounded shape, and
abrupt curvature, more resemble the ribs of a carnivorous animal than
those of a man. Dr. H. v. Meyer, however, to whose judgment I defer,
will not venture to declare them to be ribs of any animal ; and it only
remains to suppose that this abnormal condition has arisen from an unu-
sually powerful development of the thoracic muscles.

SCHAAFFHATJSEN ON THE CRANIA OF THE ANCIENT KACES OF MAN. 159

The bones adhere strongly to the tongue, although, as proved by
the use of hydrochloric acid, the greater part of the cartilage is still re-
tained in them, which appears, however, to have undergone that trans-
formation into gelatine which has been observed by v. Bibra in fossil
bones. The surface of all the bones is in many spots covered with mi-
nute black specks, which, more especially under a lens, are seen to be
formed of very delicate dendrites. These deposits, which were first
observed on the bones by Dr. Mayer, are most distinct on the inner
surface of the cranial bones. They consist of a ferruginous compound,
and, from their black colour, may be supposed to contain manganese.
Similar dendritic formations also occur, not unfrequently, on laminated
rocks, and are usually found in minute fissures and cracks. At the
meeting of the Lower Rhine Society at Bonn, on the 1st April, 1857,
Prof. Mayer stated that he had noticed in the museum of Poppelsdorf
similar dendritic crystallizations on several fossil bones of animals, and
particularly on those of Ursus spelceus, but still more abundantly and
beautifully displayed on the fossil bones and teeth of Eqims adamitieus,
JElephas primigenias, &c, from the caves of Bolve and Sundwig. Faint
indications of similar dendrites were visible in a Roman skull from Sieg-
burg ; whilst other ancient skulls which had lain for centuries in the
earth presented no trace of them.* I am indebted to H. v. Meyer for
the following remarks on this subject : —

" The incipient formation of dendritic deposits, which were formerly
regarded as a sign of a truly fossil condition, is interesting. It has even
been supposed that in diluvial deposits the presence of dendrites might
be regarded as affording a certain mark of distinction between bones
mixed with the diluvium at a somewhat later period and the true dilu-
vial relics, to which alone it was supposed that these deposits were con-
fined. But I have long been convinced that neither can the absence of
dendrites be regarded as indicative of recent age, nor their presence as
sufficient to establish the great antiquity of the objects upon which
they occur. I have myself noticed upon paper, which could scarcely
be more than a year old, dendritic deposits, which could not be distin-
guished from those on fossil bones. Thus I possess a dog's skull from
the Roman colony of the neighbouring Heddersheim, Castrum Hadria-
num, which is in no way distinguishable from the fossil bones from the
Frankish caves ; it presents the same colour, and adheres to the tongue
just as they do ; so that this character also, which, at a former meeting
of German naturalists at Bonn, gave rise to amusing scenes between
Buckland and Schmerling, is no longer of any value. In disputed cases,
therefore, the condition of the bone can scarcely afford the means for de-
termining with certainty whether it be fossil, that is to say, whether it
belong to geological antiquity, or to the historical period."

As we cannot now look upon the primitive world as representing a
wholly different condition of things, from which no transition exists to

* Verh. des Naturhist. Yereins in Bonn, xiv., 1857.

1 60 ORIGINAL ARTICLES.

the organic life of the present time, the designation of fossil, as applied
to a bone, has no longer the sense it conveyed in. the time of Cuvier.
Sufficient grounds exist for the assumption that man coexisted with the
animals found in the diluvium; and many a barbarous race may, before
all historical time, have disappeared, together with the animals of the
ancient world, whilst the races whose organization is improved have
continued the genus. The bones which form the subject of this Paper
present characters which, although not decisive as regards a geological
epoch, are, nevertheless, such as indicate a very high antiquity. It may
also be remarked that, common as is the occurrence of diluvial animal
bones in the muddy deposits of caverns, such remains have not hitherto
been met with in the caves of the Neanderthal ; and that the bones,
which were covered by a deposit of mud not more than four or five feet
thick, and without any protective covering of stalagmite, have retained
the greatest part of their organic substance.

These circumstances might be adduced against the probability of a
geological antiquity. Nor should we be justified in regarding the cra-
nial conformation as perhaps representing the most savage primitive
type of the human race, since crania exist among living savages, which,
though not exhibiting such a remarkable conformation of the forehead,
which gives the skull somewhat the aspect of that of the large apes, still in
other respects, as for instance in the greater depth of the temporal fossse,
the crest-like, prominent temporal ridges, and a generally less capacious
cranial cavity, exhibit an equally low stage of development. There is
no reason for supposing that the deep frontal hollow is due to any arti-
ficial flattening, such as is practised in various modes by barbarous
nations in the Old and New World. The skull is quite symmetrical,
and shows no indication of counter-pressure at the occiput, whilst, ac-
cording to Morton, in the Flat-heads of the Columbia, the frontal and pa-
rietal bones are always unsymmetrical. Its conformation exhibits the
sparing development of the anterior part of the head which has been so
often observed in very ancient crania, and affords one of the most striking
proofs of the influence of culture and civilization on the form of the hu-
man skull. The Abbe Frere,* whose collection of crania belonging to
the different centuries of our epoch is now placed in the Anthropolo-
gical Museum of the Jardin des Plantes in Paris, came to the conclusion
that, in the most ancient crania, the occipital was the most, and the
frontal region the least developed ; and that the increase in the eleva-
tion of the latter marked the transition from barbarous to civilized man.
Blumenbach, also, met with an old Danish skull, whose facial angle
was no greater than it is in the Negro. In the sepulchral mounds near
Ambery in the Upper Palatinate, at Witterswyl in Switzerland, and in
other places in Germany, crania have been found exhibiting a surpris-
ingly slight development of the frontal region. f Hyrtl describes a

* Serres. Gaz. Med de Paris, 1852, No. 31.

f Jahresber. d. Sinsheim. Gesellsch. z. Erforsch. d. vaterl. Denkmale d. Vorzeit von
K. Wilhelmi, 1831-46.

SCHAAFFHAUSEN ON THE CRANIA OF THE ANCIENT RACES OF MAN. 161

Celtic skull found at Hallstadt as dolichocephalic and orthognathic, with
the incisor and molar teeth entirely worn down, and the frontal bone
much inclined backwards.* The crania found in Lower Austria, near
Grafenegg, and afterwards at Atzgersdorf, with depressed foreheads,
were regarded as those of Avares; but their very abnormal form, resem-
bling that of the Peruvian skulls, and which may also be traced in the
fragments of cranial bones from the Crimea, described by v. Eathke and
K. Meyer, f has been produced by artificial means. J In many in-
stances, also, in which human bones, taken as the oldest traces of the
existence of our race on the earth, have been found intermixed with
those of extinct animals, they have exhibited an undeveloped primi-
tive form of the cranium. Among the crania collected by Schlotheim
in the gypsum caves near Kostritz, Link found one with a remark-
ably flattened forehead. In a bone-cavern in Brazil, Lund discovered
human crania mixed with the bones of extinct animals, in which the
forehead receded on a level with the face — a formation which is also
represented in ancient Mexican pictures. In the rocky caverns of the
Peruvian Andes, Castelnau discovered, under the same conditions, hu-
man crania of a similar strongly retrocedent, elongated form. A cra-
nium found, together with fossil bones of animals, in the cavern of
Engis, near Luttich, is described by Schmeiiing as being elongated,
with a slightly elevated and narrow frontal bone, and a form of the or-
bits more approaching that of the Negro than of the European. In the
cavern of Chauvaux, near JNamur, among numerous fragments of hu-
man bones, the half of a cranium was found, in which the forehead was
so retrocedent, and the alveolar arches so prominent, that the facial an-
gle was not more than 70°. Easoumovsky's statements respecting the
supposed fossil skulls of the Mount Calvary, near Baden, which have
been compared sometimes with that of the Negro, sometimes with the
Caribbean skull, have been corrected by Eitzinger, who agrees with
Hyrtl in regarding the crania, according to Eetzias' description of the
Czechen-skull, as Sclavonic. §

In a report of the meeting of German naturalists and physicians,
held at Tubingen, in 1853, published in the German and foreign perio-
dicals, Eraas is reported to have exhibited a petrified human skull from
the Swabian Alps, of an elongated form, with prominent jaw, worn teeth,
retrocedent forehead, large frontal sinuses, and strongly developed

* Jahrb. d. K. K. Geologischen Reichanstalt. , Wien, 1850. I., p. 852.

f Mull. Arch., 1850, p. 513., taf. xiv. and xv. [Fid. also, on the subject of these
macrocephalic skulls, a recent, learned memoir by K. E. v. Baer : " Die Makrokephalen
im Boden der Krym und Osterreichs," &c. (In Mem. de l'Acad. de St. Petersbourg,
tomeii. No. 6. I860.)]

% Fitzinger, Sitzungsb. d. K. Ak. d. Wissensch. Math. Naturer, Kl. vii., B. 1851.,
p. 271.

§ Denkschr. d. k. Akad. d. Wissensch. Wien, 1853. V.
VOL. 1. — N. H. E. Y

162 ORIGINAL ARTICLES.

muscular processes .* This report, however, was erroneous, and arose
in a mistake. On the occasion in question, some ancient skulls from
the Celtic graves of Sigmaringen were exhibited, after which the dis-
cussion fell upon the supposed fossil human teeth, from the iron mines
of Melchingen, in the Swabian Alps.

There is no reason whatever for regarding the unusual development
of the frontal sinuses in the remarkable skull from the Neanderthal as
an individual or pathological deformity ; it is unquestionably a typical
race-character, and is physiologically connected with the uncommon
thickness of the other bones of the skeleton, which exceeds by about
one-half the usual proportions. This expansion of the frontal sinuses,
which are appendages of the air-passages, also indicates an unusual
force and power of endurance in the movements of the body, as may be
concluded from the size of all the ridges and processes for the attach-
ment of the muscles or bones. That this conclusion may be drawn
from the existence of large frontal sinuses, and a prominence of the
lower frontal region, is confirmed in many ways by other observations.
By the same characters, according to Pallas, the wild horse is distin-
guished from the domesticated, and according to Cuvier, the fossil cave-,
bear from every recent species of bear ; whilst according to Eoulin, the
pig, which has become wild in America, and regained a resemblance
to the wild boar, is thus distinguished from the same animal in the
domesticated state, as is the chamois from the goat ; and, lastly, the
bulldog, which, is characterised by its large bones and strongly de-
veloped muscles from every other kind of dog. The estimation of the
facial angle, the determination of which, according to Professor Owen,
is also difficult in the great apes, owing to the very prominent supra-
orbital ridges, in the present is case rendered still more difficult from
the absence both of the auditory opening and of the nasal spine. But
if the proper horizontal position of the skull be taken from the remain-
ing portions of the orbital plates, and the ascending line made to touch
the surface of the frontal bone behind the prominent supra-orbital
ridges, the facial angle is not found to exceed 56°.f Unfortunately, no
portions of the facial bones, whose conformation is so decisive as regards
the form and expression of the head, have been preserved. The cranial
capacity, compared with the uncommon strength of the corporeal frame,
would seem to indicate a small cerebral development. The skull as it
is holds about 31 ounces of millet-seed; and as, from the proportionate size
of the wanting bones, the whole cranial cavity should have about
6 ounces more added, the contents, were it perfect, may be taken at
37 ounces. Tiedemann assigns as the cranial contents in the Negro 40,
38, and 35 ounces. The cranium holds rather more than 36 ounces of
water, which corresponds to a capacity of 1033.24 cubic centimetres.

* Fid. the figure given in the Leipsic Illust. Journ. of Nov. 26, 1853.
f Estimating the facial angle in the way suggested, on the cast I should place it at
64° to 67°.— G. B.

SCHAAFFHAUSEN ON THE CRANIA OF THE ANCIENT RACES OF MAN. 163

Huschke estimates the cranial contents of a Negress at 1127 cubic cen-
timetres, of an old Negro at 1146 cubic centimetres. The capacity of
Malay skulls estimated by water equalled 36, 33 ounces, whilst in the
diminutive Hindoos it falls to as little as 27 ounces.

It is, of course, a matter of the greatest interest to inquire whether
a similar conformation has been before noticed ; whether it is probable
that it exists only in skulls to which a high antiquity must be assigned ;
and whether in any instance of the kind observations may not have been
made tending to supply what is wanting in the results of the investi-
gation above detailed, and to confirm or to contradict the conclusions
drawn therefrom. Large frontal sinuses, it is admitted, are occasionally
noticed in skulls ; but these instances afford only faint indications of
the remarkable conformation which gives the cranium we are consi-
dering its brutal expression. In the museums of the College of Surgeons
in London, the Jardin des Plantes at Paris, of the Universities of
Gottingen, Berlin, and Eonn, there is nothing which can be compared
with it. Neither do the ancient northern crania, described by Retzius,
Eschricht, &c, show any conformation of the kind. But it is remark-
able, and important in the explanation of this form, that a prominence,
though in much less degree, of the supra-orbital ridges has been ob-
served chiefly in the crania of savage races, as well as in those of great
antiquity. Thus Sandifort* figures the skull of a North American
from an ancient burial-place on New Norfolk Sound, as cranium
Schitgagani, with a similar though far less considerable projection of
the supraorbital ridges. In Morton's worksf an unusual development
of the same part may be seen in the Peruvian (tab. 6), the Mexican
(tab. 16, 17, 18), the Seminole (tab. 24), and in the skulls of other
races (tab. 25, 34, 35, 36, 37, 52, 57, 63, and 66), some of which
were taken from ancient burial-places. Lucas \ gives a figure of a very
brutal Papu skull in the Senkenbergian collection, having strong,
coalescent superciliary arches. Even Bory St. Vincent assigned as
characters of the Celtic race an elongated form of the skull, a forehead
somewhat depressed towards the temples, a deep depression between
the forehead and nose, strongly developed supra-orbital ridges, and
worn teeth. Eschricht examined the skulls from the Hiinengrabern
(Giants' Graves) of the Island of Moen;§ they are remarkably diminutive,
especially in the facial part, the occiput very short, the orbits un-
usually small, whilst the supra-orbital ridges, on the contrary, are very
large; the nasal bones project strongly in front, and a depression exists
between the supra-orbital arches and the nasal bones, deep enough to
receive the forefinger of an adult ; the attachments of the facial muscles
are strongly marked, the alveolar margins projecting, and the teeth
worn off obliquely. Subsequently Eschricht obtained from the same

* Tabulae craniorum, Lugd. Bat., 1838.

+ Crania Americana. London, 1839.

+ Zur Organischen Formenlehre. Frankf. , 1844. Taf. xi.

§ Bericht ub. d. 22te Versamm. deutsch. Naturf. u. Aerzt. in Bremen, 1841.

164 ORIGINAL ARTICLES.

locality skulls of an entirely different form, of considerable length,
flat, and compressed, with a projecting occiput, and small facial deve-
lopment.

One cranium of this kind, from the Danish Island Tyor, presents on
the occiput a bony spine ; the thigh-bones belonging to the same sub-
ject, 20f inches long, indicate a height of 6 feet 3 inches. Prichard
has figured a round skull, with prominent supraorbital ridges, in the
museum of the College of Surgeons, as a Cimbric cranium.* A skull
found in an ancient grave at Nogent les Yierges, Oise, exhibits, as
does a similar cranium from Auduze, an elongated form, the fore-
head depressed towards the temples, strong supraorbital ridges, and
worn teeth.f The ancient British brachycephalic skull from Ballidon
Moor, described by Davis, J has large frontal sinuses, prominent su-
praorbital ridges, and well-developed muscular impressions on the
facial bones. The prominence of the orbital border is less consider-
able in the ancient British skull, which is also brachycephalic, de-
scribed by Betzius. An ancient rounded Irish skull also exhibits
large supraorbital ridges projecting in front of the frontal bone, and
meeting in the middle, and a depressed forehead. §

As, in speaking of the aboriginal inhabitants of Scandinavia, Nilsson
describes a more ancient brachycephalic, and a more recent dolichocephalic
type of cranial conformation, from the circumstance that the long oval
skulls of the one type have been found in graves containing metallic im-
plements, whilst the others have occurred in ancient burial-places, toge-
ther with implements of stone and bone, so D.Wilson asserts the existence
of two races in Scotland antecedent to the Celts ; the Fifeshire skull de-
scribed by him as elongated and narrow, corresponding with the dolicho-
cephalic Scandinavian type, whilst that from Montrose is round, with a
better frontal development, both exhibiting large frontal sinuses. || The
skulls, two of which were sent to me by the kindness of Dr. Yeiel, disinterred
some years since in Cannstadt, near the Uffkirche, and which were found
in Germanic graves, together with earthenware vessels, weapons, and or-
naments, none of which articles presented any trace of Boman art, are
orthognathic, of an elongated form, with a much projecting occiput, large
orbits, particularly from above downwards, the supraorbital ridges pro-
minent, and the root of the nose hollowed. Five ancient Germanic
skulls, from Selsen, preserved in the Bomano-Teutonic Museum at
Mayence, two of which are prognathic, present similar prominent su-
praorbital ridges ; as is the case also with a very ancient cranium in
the same collection, found at Oberingelheim, deep in the earth, and unac-
companied by any weapons ; and also with a skull of Germanic origin,

* The Nat. Hist, of Man. Lond., 1845, p. 206. PI. VIII.

| V. Leonh. und Bronn, Jahrb. fur Mineralogie, &c, 1853, p. 370.

% Maury, Indig. Races of the Earth. London, 1857, pp. 297.

§ Retzius, Kroniologisches, in Mull. Arch.. 1849, pp. 554 and 571.

|| Maury, op. c, p. 29 k

SCHAAFFHAT7SEN OK THE CRANIA OF THE ANCIENT RACES OF MAN. 165

recently found near Engers on the Rhine, in an ancient burial-place long
well known. In the Museum at Poppelsdorf is a cranium, on which, in
the handwriting of Goldfuss, are the words " from volcanic Tufa,"
nothing further, however, being noticed with respect to its derivation.
It is of the considerable length of 198mm. (7.8") from the glabella to the
projecting occiput ; the forehead is short, and somewhat retreating, the
supraorbital ridges large and continuous, the orbits very wide, the up-
per jaw prognathous, the muscular attachments on the facial-bones
strongly marked ; of the sutures, only the sagittal is ossified ; the bones
are thin, partially calcined, and adhere strongly to the tongue ; the
lower jaw is wanting. It is also to be noticed that several Germanic
skulls found near Sigmaringen, belonging to the Prince's collection, and
which have been placed in my hands by Dr. Euhlrott have strongly de-
veloped supraorbital ridges; but, together with this,, they possess a
greater or less frontal development, and a good facial angle. The Sins-
heim skulls contained in the Stuttgart collection, also, present a noble
Caucasian form. It is certain that even in ancient times the various
Germanic stocks, according as they retained their purity of race, or be-
came blended with the remains of a primitive population, or even with
Roman blood, and in proportion as they led a savage or more civilized
mode of life, differed in corporeal constitution, as well as in the forma-
tion of the face and head.

The difference as regards the cranium is most marked in the greater
or less development of the anterior part of the head, and in the position
of the muzzle, which is occasionally rather prominent, as is the case
even at the present time in some of the German races, as, for instance,
in Hesse and the Westerwald. Huschke* describes a skull found,
together with several others of the same peculiar form, under the Stadt-
kirche at Jena, as Cimbric ; it resembles that of the Negro, except that
the jaws and forehead are vertical ; the supraorbital region projects but
slightly, the semicircular temporal line ascends to within an inch of
the sagittal suture. The length of the cranium is 196 mm, (7*7").
lletziusf describes some skulls taken from very ancient Scandinavian
graves, dating to a period of a thousand years back, as of a long-oval
form, with much elongated occiput, good forehead, upright teeth, and
corresponding in almost all respects with Swedish crania of the present
day. An ancient Norwegian and an Icelandic skull had the same form.
Subsequently,* Retzius described the small rounded skulls from very
ancient burial-places containing stone implements as those of Iberians.
With these he places the skulls found by Eschricht and Nilsson in an-
cient sepulchral barrows ; and also the supposed fossil Irish cranium
figured by Wilde, which occurred in the neighbourhood of Dublin, as

* E. Huschke, Schadel, Him und Seele des Menschen und der Thiere. Jena, 1854.
t Muller's Archiv., 18-15, p. 81.
% lb., 1847, p. 499.

166 ORIGINAL ARTICLES.

well as two others found in the same locality. To the same category he
also refers the skulls disinterred, together with stone implements, near
Meudon and Marly, in the year 1845, by M. Serres. Eetzius, also, inhi3
memoir on the form of the cranium of the northern populations, states
that the supraorbital eminences are strongly developed in the existing
Swedes, Slaves, and Finns ; Huech says the same with respect to the
Esthonians. In the Lapps this prominence is absent, or very slightly
marked, as is the case also with the natives of Greenland. In the latest
catalogue of the collection formerly belonging to Dr. Morton,*' the fol-
lowing skulls are enumerated as presenting a remarkably developed
supraorbital region : — No. 21, that of an English soldier of Celtic
type ; No. 1200, of a Norwegian; and No. 1537, of a Finn, both from
casts by Hetzius ; lastly, No. 1512, the skull of an aboriginal American,
found by Davis and Squier in the valley of Scioto, Ohio, in a rude
stone sepulchre ; this cranium is of a rounded form, with high vertex ;f
No. 1533, the skull of a Calmuc; and No. 1558, that of an Esquimaux.

Now, when it is found from these numerous examples, that a
marked prominence of the supraorbital region, traces of which can be
perceived even at the present time, occurs most frequently in the crania
of barbarous, and especially of northern races, to some of which a high
antiquity must be assigned, it may fairly be supposed that a conforma-
tion of this kind represents the faint vestiges of a primitive type, which
is manifested in the most remarkable manner in the Neanderthal cra-
nium, and which must have given the human visage an unusually
savage aspect. This aspect might be termed brutal, inasmuch as the
prominent supraorbital border is also characteristic of the facial con-
formation of the large apes, although in these animals the prominence
in question is not caused by any expansion of the frontal sinuses. These
sinuses have been found by Owen to be wholly wanting, as well in the
Gorilla, as in two Tasmanian and an Australian skull, J a circumstance
which is in accordance with the weak bodily constitutions of these
savages.

The reports which have reached us from Latin and Greek writers
respecting the bodily constitution and manners of the barbarous popula-
tions of ancient Europe, receive an unexpected light from the discovery
of crania of this kind. Even of the Germans, Caesar remarks that the
Roman soldiers were unable to withstand their aspect and the flashing
of their eyes, and that a sudden panic seized his army.§ Of the Gauls,

* Aitken Meigs, Catalogue of Human Crania in the Collection of the Acad, of Nat.
Sc. of Philadelphia. 1857.

f [The cranium of a Red Indian figured by us. PI. V., figs. 1 and 2, appears to be-
long to the same type.]

% In the Gorilla the frontal sinuses are of large size, although they do not altogether
cons' itute the large supraorbital eminences.

§ Csesar, in the passage cited, does not say that his troops were actually frightened
by the aspect of the Germani. All that he states is that, while delayed for a few days at

SCHAAFFHAUSEN ON THE CRANIA OF THE ANCIENT RACES OF MAN. 167

also, Ammianus Marcellinus says : " They are frightful from the wild-
ness of their eyes." Bat the ancient Britons and Irish, the Belgians,
Fins, and Scythians are described as of far more savage aspect. According
to Strabo, the Irish were voracious cannibals, and considered it praise-
worthy to eat the bodies of their parents ; and they are noticed in simi-
lar terms by Diodorus. St. Hieronymus states that, even in Gaul, the
Scoti had been seen eating human flesh. Tacitus relates with respect
to the Fins, that they live in a state of astonishing savageness, their
food being wild herbs, their clothing skins, their arrow-heads made of
bone, and that the children and old people had no other protection from
the weather than wattled huts. Adam of Bremen relates that, so late
as in the eleventh century, the so-termed Jotuni, the most ancient popu-
lation of Scandinavia, dwelt in the mountains and forests, clad in the
skins of animals, and uttering sounds more like the cries of wild beasts
than human speech. Their conquest and extermination are celebrated
in the poems of the Skalds.* Isigonus of Nicaea, quoted by Pliny, f
says that a Scythian people dwelling ten days' journey northwards from
the Dnieper was addicted to cannibalism, drank out of human skulls,
and carried the hairy scalps of the slain on their breast. As in the
German traditions and tales, many traces of the mode of life of our an-
cestors have come down to us from heathen times, so also may the tra-
dition respecting cannibalism, which, from Grimm's researches, though it
appears as early as Homer in the history of Polyphemus, is also widely
diffused in the legends of the Fins, Tartars, and Germans, have originated
in the actual remembrance of that abominable practice. J

The considerations which have led us to compare the Neanderthal
cranium with those of the most ancient races are still farther confirmed

Vesontio, on his march against Ariovistus, reports were spread by the Roman inhabi-
tants of the country, and by the Gauls and traders, of the " incredible valour, expertnesa
in arms, and gigantic stature of the Germani ;" and that these reports (which were, pro-
bably, not altogether unintentionally made) caused a sudden panic, chiefly, however,
among the volunteers who had followed him, and the inexperienced soldiers. He seems
to have had little difficulty in quelling the commotion, and in removing some of the dread
instilled into his troops, by reminding them that the Germani had been often beaten with-
out difficulty by the Helvetii.

* J. C. Prichard, Natural History of Man.

f Plinii, Sec. Hist. Nat., vii 2.

% [To these references might be added, perhaps, some lines of Sidonis Apollinaris in
describing the Huns, quoted by V. Baer (DieMakrokephalen, &c, p. 36 :) —

" Gens animis membrisque minax : ita vultibus ipsis
Infantum suus horror inest. Consurgit in arcem
Massa rotunda caput : geminis sub froute cavernis
Visus adest oculis absentibus : arcta cerebri
In cameram vix ad refugos lux pervenit orbes,
Non tamen et clausos : nam fornix non spatiosa,
Magna vident spatia, et majoris luminis usum
Perspicua in puteis compensant puncta profundis."]

168 ORIGINAL ARTICLES.

by the discovery, about to be related, of skulls exhibiting "a yet closer
correspondence with it than do those already mentioned.

At the meeting of the Lower Rhine Society, on the 9th July, 1857,
Herr Noggerath stated that, in the Transactions of the Imperial Rus-
sian Mineralogical Society of St. Petersburgh, of the year 1842, an ac-
count was given by Dr. S. Kutorga, of two human skulls from the Go-
vernment of Minsk, and that one of the skulls there figured presented a
great similarity with that found in the Neanderthal. Both these skulls
were discovered near Bobruysk. One was found in the sandy bottom of
a hollow, apparently an ancient river-bed, in a locality where numerous
human bones had been occasionally met with for a very long period; and tra-
dition said that a town formerly stood there, which was destroyed by an
inundation. Of this cranium only the frontal and two parietal bones re-
main. The frontal is strongly depressed, the supraorbital ridges, in-
cluding the border of the orbit, form prominent elevations ; the two halves
of the frontal bone are unequal, and the sagittal suture manifestly flat-
tened. Dr. Kutorga considers it very probable that this conformation was
brought about by artificial compression ; but the figure which he gives
does not convey the decided characters of an artificial deformity. The
other skull, taken from an ancient sepulchral mound in the same region,
exhibits a well-developed forehead ; but both the frontal and parietal
bones are still more unsymmetrical than in the former skull. On the
right side is a very well developed tuber frontale, which is wholly want-
ing on the left ; the left parietal bone, also, is smaller than the right.

Shortly afterwards, in September, 1857, my attention was directed
by Herr L. Lindenschmit to the cast of a frontal bone having exactly
the same conformation, in the Romano- Teutonic Central Museum, at
Mayence. This cast had been taken from a skull found near Plau, in
Mecklenburg. At the meeting of the Association of German Naturalists
and Physicians, at Bonn, in the same month, these peculiar cranial forms
were exhibited in plaster casts, the difference between them and the
crania of other lower races pointed out, and the opinion again expressed
that this hitherto unknown form of skull probably belonged to a primi-
tive race, settled in North Europe before the Germanic immigration.
Having made application on the subject to Dr. Lisch, Keeper of the
Archives in Schwerin, where the crania are preserved in the Grand
Duke's collection, I was furnished with precise information respecting
the discovery of the remains at Plau ; and the portions of the skulls, to-
gether with similar relics found in Schwaan and other places in Meck-
lenburgh, were most readily sent to me. Thus were afforded the ma-
terials for a brief report upon the subject, which was read at the sitting of
the Lower Rhine Society, held on the 3rd February, 1858.* The parti-
culars are as follows : — A human skeleton in a squatting, or almost
kneeling posture, together with implements made of bone, a battle-axe

* Verhandl. des naturh. Vereins des preuss. Rheinl. u. Westphal., 1858. xv.

SCHAAFFHAUSEN ON THE CRANIA OF THE ANCIENT RACES OF MAN. 169

of stag's-horn, two boar V tusks, which had been cut off, and three in-
cisor-teeth of a stag perforated at the root, was found near Plau,* in si-
liceous sand, six feet below the surface. A very high antiquity was
assigned to this grave, as it was wholly unprotected by any masonry, and
afforded no trace of cremation having been practised, nor any implements
of stone, clay, or metal. Dr. Lisch, who had been struck with the unusual
prominence of the supraorbital border, the wide root of the nose, and the
strongly retrocedent frontal, accompanied the account of the finding with
this remark : — "The formation of the skull indicates a very remotely dis-
tant period, at which man presented a much lower degree of development.
Probably this grave belongs to the autocthonous population." I suc-
ceeded, with some trouble, in putting together the skull, which, as well
as the skeleton, had been broken to pieces by the labourers, from the
twenty-two fragments transmitted to me. "Notwithstanding the great
similarity in the form of the forehead between this skull and that from
the Neanderthal, the prominence of the supraorbital ridges in the latter
is more marked, and they are completely continuous with the orbital-
margin, which is not the case in the former. But the skulls are essen-
tially distinguished by their general form, which in the one is long-
elliptical, and in the other rounded. In the skull from Plau, a portion
of the upper jaw with the teeth, and the entire lower jaw, have been
preserved ; it is orthognathous. The bones are thick, but very light, and
adhere strongly to the tongue. The muscular impressions on the occi-
put above the mastoid process are very strongly developed ; the sutures
are wholly unossified ; the last upper molar on the right side has not
yet come through the alveolus ; the teeth are worn away, the entire
crown in some of the molars having disappeared ; the lower canine teeth
are far larger than the incisors, and project in front of the row of teeth ;
the foramen incisivum in the upper jaw is very large, exceeding 4mm in
width. The wide and short ascending ramus of the lower jaw rises at
a right angle. The muscular impressions on the lower jaw are also
well marked. On the right parietal ^bone is an elongated indentation,
apparently caused by a blow. The dimensions are as follows : —

mm.
Circumference over the supraorbital ridges and the

superior semicircular lines of the occiput, . . . 445(17.7")
From the root of the nose over the vertex to the supe-
rior semicircular lines, 320(12.7")

From the root of the nose over the vertex to the fora-
men magnum, , 380 ( 15")

Length from the glabella to the occiput, . . . . 168 ( 6.5")

Breadth of frontal, 107 ( 4.1")

Height from a line connecting the squamous borders

of the parietals to the middle of the sagittal suture, 80 ( 3.2")

* Jalir. d. Vereins fur Mecklenburg. Geschichte und Alterthumskunde, herausg. von
G. S. F. Lisch, Schwerin, 1847, xii., p. 400.
VOL. I. N. H, R. %

170 ORIGINAL ARTICLES.

mm.
Prom the foramen magnum to the same point, . . . 122 ( 4.8")
Width of occiput from one parietal protuberance to

the other, 138 ( 5.5")

Width of base from one mastoid process to the other, 155 (6.25")
Thickness of the frontal and of the parietal bones in

the middle of each, 9

The cranial contents, estimated in millet-seed, amount to 36 ounces,
3 J drachms, Prussian apothecaries' weight.

Another instance of a similar cranial form has occurred in Meck-
lenburg ; and the circumstance under which the skull was found again
point to a high antiquity. In the year 1852, a human skeleton, with a
bronze sword, was found in a sepulchral mound, termed "theHer-
berg," under a stone cairn, covered with an earthern mound. The
skull presented a regular Caucasian form. Beneath a stone foundation,
upon which the body lay extended, were found eight skulls lying
in the same direction, the faces looking towards the west ; beneath these
were innumerable bones lying one upon another, the arm-bones appear-
ing above the thigh-bones, as if in this spot eight bodies had been placed
side by side in the ground in a crouching or squatting posture. The
bones were so rotten, that only a few of them could be preserved. A
frontal bone, which was also sent to me by Dr. Lisch, presented in the
great prominence of the supraorbital ridges, the low retreating forehead,
and the broad root of the nose, a great similarity with the Plau cra-
nium; but the projection was far less considerable; and the thin
bone with the ossified coronal suture appeared to belong to a young or
female cranium ; it adhered to the tongue, like the Plau cranium. The
assumption that the eight bodies placed in the foundation belonged to
a more ancient period than the principal corpse, is not justified by the
more decayed condition of their bones, which obviously depends upon
the way in which they were buried ; it is far more probable that these
eight bodies were those of slaves, sacrificed at the interment of the
warrior. That the Germani, when they immigrated into Germany,
met with an indigenous population, is indubitable from historical and
linguistic indications. The position in a crouching or squatting posture
is not Germanic, it indicates a higher antiquity ; but the custom may
have maintained itself even into the time of the Germani, together
with the remnants of the aboriginal population. As among the Esqui-
maux and Greenlanders, and several American tribes, the dead are
placed in the graves in a sitting posture, so, according to Nilsson,*
human skeletons in a squatting posture occur only in the more an-
cient graves in Scandinavia, as, for instance, in the Axevalla-Haide.
These primitive graves are covered with great stones, and they never
contain any objects of metal, nor any indication of cremation having

* Jahrbuch. der Vereins f. Mecklenb. Gesch. u. Alterthumskunde. 1849, xiv.,
p. 301.

SCHAAFFHAUSEN ON THE CRANIA OF THE ANCIENT EACES OF MAN. 171

been practised, affording only implements made of bone and stone.
The skulls of these bodies are said to be divided by the coronal suture
into two equal parts, of which the posterior is broader than the anterior.
They are remarkably small, globular, and almost round; the upper jaw
and the nasal bones project considerably in front. They are chiefly
distinguished from the skulls of other races by the low and much de-
pressed forehead. Eschricht, as stated before, describes the skull from
the Hiinengrabern of Denmark in similar terms. A. G. Masch refers
to a skull of this character, found in an ancient grave in the Island of
Moen,' which is figured in the "Dag," a Danish newspaper of the
15th September, 1835, as well as to a skull found near Fehrbellin,*
which would appear to possess all the characters of that from Plau, and
had probably been used as a drinking vessel. J. Ritterf also gives an
account of a large barrow near Plau, in which the skull lay a foot
higher than the rest of the skeleton, and it appeared as if the body had
been placed in the sitting posture. The forehead of this cranium is
described as remarkably flat. Human skeletons in the squatting posture
have been found in ancient graves in France and Germany, as well as
in Scandinavia. Tschudi, it is well known, brought mummies of this
kiud from Peru ; and Trogon observed the same thing in the most an-
cient burial-places in the Canton Wallis. The skulls from Plau and
the frontal bone from Schwaan, which present a conformation resembling
that of the Neanderthal cranium, bear, however, but a distant resem-
blance to the two frontal bones from Pisede, also preserved in the Grand
Duke's collection at Schwerin. One of these frontal bones is thick, with
protuberant supraorbital ridges, a low retreating forehead, and the
temporal ridge rises very high, reaching the sagittal suture ; in the
second frontal bone, the supraorbital ridges are level, but the glalella
is remarkably prominent, and the forehead rather more arched. An
ancient cranium in the same collection, found at some depth in the
moor of Siilz, and of which I have been furnished with a plaster cast
by Dr. Lisch, is of an abnormal and very peculiar form ; it is small and
elongated, and, when viewed laterally, remarkably round ; the forehead
is narrow, but well arched, the supraorbital ridges small, but protu-
berant ; the sutures open, and the line of the sagittal suture raised into
a sort of keel, as in the so-termed "boat-shaped" skulls; the occiput is
very projecting, with a long pointed spine.

In conclusion, the following propositions may be regarded as the re-
sult of the foregoing researches : —

The fragments of crania from Schwaan and Plau, on account both
of their anatomical conformation and of the circumstances under which
they were found, may probably be assigned to a barbarous, aboriginal
people, which inhabited the North of Europe before the Germani; and,
as is proved by the dis&overy of similar remains at Minsk in Russia,

* Jahrb. d. Vereins f. Mecklenb. Gesckichte, &c, 1844, ix., p. 361.
f lb., 1846, xi.

172

ORIGINAL ARTICLES.

and in the Neanderthal near Elberfeld, mnst have been extensively-
spread — being allied, as may be presumed from the form of the skull,
with the aboriginal populations of Britain, Ireland, and Scandinavia.
Whilst at Schwaan the bones were deposited in a Germanic grave of
stone, and consequently are brought into relation with the historical
period, the bones from Plau, on the contrary, were merely laid in the
sand, together with implements of bone of the rudest kind. The Minsk
skull, in like manner, was found in the sand of an ancient river-bed.
But the human bones and cranium from the Neanderthal exceed all the
rest in those peculiarities of conformation which lead to the conclusion
of their belonging to a barbarous and savage race. Whether the cavern
in which they were found, unaccompanied with any trace of human
art, were the place of their interment, or whether, like the bones of ex-
tinct animals elsewhere, they had been washed into it, they may still
be regarded as the most ancient memorial of the early inhabitants of
Europe.

Remarks.

The fact of the geological antiquity of Man, or, to use other words, of
his having been cotemporary with extinct animals whose remains are
universally regarded by geologists as "fossil," has apparently been
fully established, though rather, perhaps, from the discovery of his works
than of his actual remains, under certain geological conditions. It has
become a matter, therefore, among others, of extreme interest to deter-
mine how far it may be possible, from the scanty remains of his bones
as yet discovered, to ascertain whether, and in what respects, the pris-
can race or races may have differed from those which at present inhabit
the earth.

Although the materials as yet in our possession are far too scanty to
allow of any satisfactory solution of this difficult question, they are
sufficient, perhaps, to allow of its being entered upon. It is with this
view that we reproduce the interesting paper by Professor Schaaffhausen,
which incidentally treats upon the question at large, and contains a
considerable amount of information respecting it.

The human remains there described were discovered under circum-
stances which, though not altogether demonstrative of their real geolo-
gical position, leave no doubt of their enormous antiquity, and of the
probability of their having belonged to what has been termed the qua-
ternary period. The conformation of the cranium, moreover, in this
instance is so remarkable, as justly to excite the utmost interest, ap-
proaching as it does in one respect that of some of the higher apes. It
remains, consequently, a subject of the deepest importance for future
discoveries to determine whether the conformation in question be
merely an individual peculiarity, or a typical character. The pecu-
liarity consists in a remarkable prominence or projection of the super-
ciliary region of the forehead ; for the enlargement in this part is so

SCHAAFFHAUSEN ON THE CllANIA OF TIIE ANCIENT EACES OF MAN. 173

great, that it can hardly be described as limited to the superciliary
ridges. Dr. Schaaffhausen appears to regard this extraordinary con-
formation as due to an expansion of the frontal sinuses. In this we
are not disposed altogether to agree with him ; but as we have had an
opportunity, through the kindness of Sir Charles Lyell, of examining
only a plaster cast of the cranium, in which the interior is not shown,
we, of course, are able to speak but doubtfully on the subject. A main
reason for our disagreement with Professor Schaaffhausen arises from
the circumstance that a considerable elevation of the same part is often
observed in recent crania, more especially, as he states, in those be-
longing to savage and barbarous races, in which no extraordinary ex-
pansion of the sinuses is found to exist ;* and, secondly, because the
frontal sinuses rarely, we believe, extend beyond half the length of
the supraorbital border; whilst in many cases — and this is particu-
larly evident in the Neanderthal cranium — the elevation is continued
to the outer angular process of the frontal bone, which, in that cra-
nium, is very remarkably thickened.

The lateral extent of the frontal sinus, in cases where the superciliary
borders are much elevated, is usually imperfectly indicated by an opening
or depression, through which the frontal nerve passes ; and this depres-
sion is very manifest, especially on the right side, in the fossil cranium,
in which it is regarded by Professor Schaaffhausen, we believe erro-
neously, as indicative of an injury received during life. In the mature
Chimpanzee and Gorilla, the supraorbital ridges are, as is well known,
remarkably developed : in the former case, we are not aware that the
enlargement is accompanied with any expansion of the frontal sinuses,
which in fact do not exist in that ape, but it is due simply to a pro-
jection of the margin of the orbit, which, cavity is larger in proportion
to the skull behind it, than it is in the human subject, and is thus in
accordance with the greater development of the face generally. In the
old Gorilla, on the other hand, although the bone itself is enormously
thickened in the monstrous projection above the orbit, there are very
large frontal sinuses.f However this may be, the protuberance in
question must be regarded as showing a very savage type; and, in
the extent to which it exists in the Neanderthal cranium, it affords a
character in which that skull approaches that of the Gorilla and Chim-
panzee.

Dr. Schaaffhausen appears to have taken considerable pains to in-

* It may be observed also that a considerable development of the sinuses may coexist
with only a moderate elevation of the superciliary region. This is the case in the frag-
ment of a cranium represented in PI. V., fig. 6.

f In order to render the apparent resemblance between the Neanderthal cranium and
that of the higher apes the more evident, we have given the outline of a corresponding
portion of the skull of a Chimpanzee, in which the third molars are just appearing, and
which will serve to show the remarkable similarity in contour, at any rate, between the
two. The human cranium, it is hardly necessary to say, is represented half the size of
nature, whilst that of the Chimpanzee is but slightly reduced, so as to bring it to the same
comparative scale.

174 ORIGINAL AETICLES.

quire whether a similar conformation, or one approaching it, has been
observed in other instances of ancient or modern skulls, but without
success. He describes and figures a brachycephalic cranium from Plau
(PL V., fig. 8), in which there is a considerable protuberance of the
supra-orbital ridges, but not to anything like the extent of that pre-
sented in the Neanderthal skull. We have added figures taken from
the cranium of a Red Indian, which was procured from an ancient
burial-place in Tennessee, and in which, of all the crania in our pos-
session, the supraorbital prominence is most marked (PL V., figs.
1 and 2). This skull also affords a striking instance of the existence of
irregular depressions of the same nature as those which are seen, more
especially on the right side, in the Neanderthal cranium.

To these figures we have also added others of some very ancient fos-
silized crania from different localities, with the view, simply, of show-
ing that considerable diversities of form existed among even the ear-
liest races of mankind inhabiting the "West of Europe. These are : 1 .*
The figure of a cranium discovered in a submarine, or rather subterra-
nean peat bog or forest, 30 feet below the present level of the sea, at
Sennen, near the Land's End, Cornwall, for which we are indebted to
Mr. Jonathan Couch, through the kindness of Prof. Wariugton Smyth.
This cranium, it may be remarked, bears some resemblance to the Engis
cranium of Dr. Schmerling.f

2. A cranium, probably of a female, found, together with less per-
fect skulls and numerous other bones belonging to six or seven indivi-
duals of different ages, from 60 or 70 down to 3 or 4 years, in a narrow
fissure in a limestone quarry at Mewslade in Glamorganshire, and not
improbably of the same period as the bones of animals, &c, found in
the neighbouring caverns in Gower, which have been described by Dr.
Falconer and others. This cranium is obviously of a wholly distinct
type from that of the others, though still in some respects peculiar. In
the Museum of the College of Surgeons are several crania taken from an
ancient (British ?) burial-place in Anglesea, in which the same confor-
mation exists. And it also resembles very closely a cranium found deep
in an ancient peat-bed in Northamptonshire, which has been placed in
our hands by Mr. Prestwich, who regards it as belonging to a very re-
mote period.

3. A small portion of another cranium, J found in a limestone quarry
near Plymouth, at a depth of about six feet below the present turf,
exhibits a different form ; it is chiefly remarkable for the retreating
forehead and the projection, without much thickening, of the supra-
orbital ridges, the margin of the orbit being very acute.

4. In the human skull discovered by Dr. Schmerling in the Cavern
of Engis, and which, we believe, is regarded by Sir Charles Lyell as
undoubtedly cotemporary with the cave Elephant, Rhinoceros, and
Carnivora, there is some reason, from the drawing of the longitudi-

Pl. V., fig. 9. f PI. V., figs. 3, 4. i PL V., fig. 6 and 7.

SCHAAFFHAFSEN ON THE CRANIA OF THE ANCIENT RACES OF MAN. 175

nal outline, for surmising that the superciliary ridges may have been pro-
minent. But as we have had no opportunity of inspecting either the
skull itself, which is in a very shattered condition, or a cast of it, and.
as the drawing given of the front view does not support the surmise,
we must be content with simply throwing it out, — leaving the point
to be determined by future examination. As the Engis cranium, from
its undoubted geological antiquity, is of particular interest, and per-
haps the most interesting relic of ancient humanity in existence, we
give reduced copies of Dr. Schmerling's figures,* which may be the
more acceptable, as his work is not very generally accessible in this
country.

With respect to the relationship between the prisca gens to which these
cave-bones belong, and any of those which, since their time, have inha-
bited Western Europe or are anywhere found living, no satisfactory
opinion can at present be offered. Dr. Schmerlrng, it is true, fancied
that he perceived some resemblance between his cranium and that of
the Negro, but it must be confessed that his figures or measurements
give no support to this notion. Dr. Schaaffhausen, enters pretty fully into
the question of this relationship; and we have, therefore, little need to
say more upon such an obscure and difficult matter. At the same time,
we cannot avoid insisting upon one important point, viz. : that none of
the crania above noticed, unless it be, perhaps, that from Plau, belong
to the brachycephalic type; that is to say, the breadth in all is less than
TVths of the length; they cannot, consequently, be referred to the
short-headed race or races, which there is much reason to believe con-
stituted the earliest of the existing European stocks.

Description of Plates,
plate IV.

Fig. 1 . Various views of the Neanderthal cranium (taken from a
plaster cast in the possession of Sir Charles Lyell), one-half size of na-
ture).

2. Side view of the cranium of a young Chimpanzee (one-ninth
less than nature).

plate v.

Fig. 1 . Side view of the cranium of a Red Indian.

2. Front view of the same.

3. Side view of the Engis^ craniunf (reduced one-half from Dr.
Schmerling's figure).

4. Front view of the same.

5. Longitudinal view of the Mewslade cranium.

6. 7. Cranium from limestone quarry near Plymouth.

PI. V., figs 3, 4.

176 ORIGINAL AETICLES.

8. Outline of Dr. Schaaffhausen's figure of the cranium from Plau.

9. Side view of the cranium from a submarine forest at Sennen,
near the Land's End.

[The figures, with the exception of the Chimpanzee skull, are all re-
duced to the same scale, or to half the natural size. They are all, ex-
cepting the front view of the Engis cranium, placed as nearly as possi-
ble in the same position, so that they admit of direct comparison. The
position selected is that in which a line drawn from the junction of the
sagittal and coronal sutures to the middle of the external auditory open-
ings would be vertical.]

XYIII. — The Sensory and Motor Functions of Nerves.
By G. H. Lewes.

"When once a doctrine has been generally accepted, and confidently
taught, it necessarily calls forth a strong conservative principle of re-
sistance against every effort to change it. That very reluctance to change
of mental attitude which made the public deaf to the voice of the
original teacher, now serves to close the ears of the public against the
opponents of that teacher. Bell had trouble enough to get his discovery
of the sensory and motor nerves accepted ; but now that the contest has
long been ended, and Bell is crowned victor, all the conservatism
which embittered his efforts is employed to maintain his triumph. Not
only is he declared victor, but "victory along the whole line" is
claimed, and his errors are consecrated with his truths.

I have alreadjr paid my small but hearty tribute to Bell's genius,
and to the unimpeachable validity of his anatomical discovery; but,
conceiving that he had founded on that discovery a physiological induc-
tion which was erroneous, I laid before the British Association,* and
the public,! certain critical strictures, the purport of which was to show
that there was no essential distinction between the two nerves : both
being sensory and motor, though in varying degrees. In these stric-
tures there may be a fundamental error ; and if so, I should be glad to
see it pointed out. The discussion is one which cannot be without
service ; and if any champion of Bell's doctrine will do me the honour to
descend into the arena, he may be assured that the harder he hits
(without foul blows), the more welcome he will be.

Ever since the time of Galen, it has' been suspected that there were
" nerves of motion," and "nerves of sensation." Latterly we have had
"nerves of secretion." The question to be settled is : Are these nerves
different in hind? or are they the same in kind, but different in function,

* Aberdeen Meeting. 1859. f Physiology of Common Life, vol. ii.

LEWES ON THE SENSORY AND MOTOR FUNCTIONS OF NERVES. 177

or use ? Flexor, extensor, and sphincter muscles are not held to be
different kinds, but the same kind applied to different uses ; the peculiar
property of muscles, Contractility, is found in all three, but this pro-
perty is put to different uses, when the anatomical connexions of the
muscles differ. In like manner, as I conceive, the nerves which are
distributed to sensory surfaces, to muscles, and to glands, are all of the
same kind, and have the same properties ; but differ in their uses, as
they are different in their anatomical connexions.

The champion of Bell must prove, first, that the motor nerve is of
such a structure as to be incapable of transmitting a stimulus to a sensi-
tive centre ; or he must prove, secondly, that its anatomical distribution
is such that no sensitive centre can be reached by it. One of these two
conclusions must be established. No other alternative is possible. Let
us examine both points.

It is admitted that motor and sensory nerves are of the same struc-
ture. The conclusion, therefore, that they must be identical in pro-
perty seemed to me self-evident, the more so as, to guard against
superficial objections, I added the qualification, "under similar condi-
tions." If any one chooses to maintain that two substances identical
in structure, under identical conditions, can have different properties, I
must leave him to the indulgence of his "right of private judgment;"
meanwhile, the axiom remains, that identity of structure implies identity
of property. There is, indeed, another avenue of attack. It has been
said, " You do not know that the two nerves are identical; there may
be differences important, yet too minute for appreciation at present.
Of two bars of steel, one may have a magnetic property, and the other
none, yet you cannot on mere inspection detect any difference in their
structure. Of two tissues, one may be dead, and the other living, yet
you cannot detect a difference." AVe do not know that two muscles, or
two secreting cells, may not be so different in structure as to have
different properties ; but until this is proved, we are not warranted in
assuming it. All we do know of the nerves points to their identity :
they have the same physical, electrical, and chemical properties ; and,
till the contrary be proved, we must assume them to be identical in all
their properties. The two bars of steel have precisely similar properties,
according to their similarities of structure ; but, over and above these, one
of them possesses a magnetic property, in consequence of its having been
submitted to peculiar conditions ; under the like conditions, the second
bar of steel would be magnetic. The same may be said of dead and
living tissues; they have in common, structure and property, and as long
as they are under similar conditions there .will be no difference between
them ; but under the group of conditions known as " life" and " death,"
there will of course be differences.

Cut off the leg of a frog, and resect its sciatic nerve, the muscles
will for some time retain their property (Contractility), and will con-
tract on being stimulated. The nerve also retains its property (]Sreu-
rility), and on being stimulated, it will excite the muscles to contraction.
We know that muscles will contract without the intervention of nerves,

VOL. I. — N. H. R. 2 A

178 ORIGINAL ARTICLES.

and that glands will secrete without the intervention of nerves. It is
also probable that the sensorium may be stimulated without the direct
intervention of nerves. But it is not less certain that the ordinary
stimulus which awakens the activity of muscles, glands, and nerve-
centres, is the stimulus of nerves. Hoio this is effected we cannot say.
What the peculiar property of the nerves may be, baffles science. It
may be electricity ; it may be a correlation of that force ; it may be a
special " nerve-force," something sui generis. To avoid every hypo-
thesis, and yet to secure a specific name, I proposed the term Neu-
rility, as corresponding with the terms Sensibility and Contractility ;
the term, having met with some acceptance, may be used throughout
this paper.

In the course of investigation, it appeared to me that many of
the vexed questions of nerve -physiology would rapidly receive answers,
if the perplexing ambiguities of phraseology were to give place to a
more rigorous nomenclature. For example, it is difficult to come to
an understanding respecting the motor and sensory nerves, so long as we
continue to talk as if we believed that "motility" resides in the spinal
chord, and that the posterior roots are " sensitive." Motor force no
more resides in the spinal chord, than explosive force resides in the
lighted match ; the motor-force is in the muscles, the explosive force is
in the gunpowder ; and when eminent physiologists are at great pains
to detect the " seat of motility" (siege de la motricite) in the grey matter
of the chord, they are perplexing a subject already difficult enough. I
do not assert that competent physiologists ever believe that the seat of
motility is elsewhere than in the muscles ; what they mean is, doubt-
less, that the centre, from which the stimulus issues which will excite
the muscles, is iii the spinal chord. But how easily the ambiguous
language leads to ambiguity of conception may be seen in a hundred
examples ; and it may be, to a great extent, avoided by rigorously de-
marcating the phenomena of Sensibility, Neurility, and Contractility,
as the actions of three different organs : nerve-centres, nerves, and
muscles.

Miiller puts this question: — "Is the nervous principle, or force of
the motor fibres, different in its quality from that of the sensitive fibres ?
or are what are here called the motor and sensitive principles, actions of
the same nervous principle, differing only indirection — being centrifugal
in the motor, and centripetal in the sensitive fibres ?" Put into the lan-
guage of the essay, this question will run thus : — Are there two Neuri-
lities, one motor, and the other sensory (with the possibility of a third—
the secretory) ? Or does the Neuriiity in each nerve act only in one
direction, from a centre along the motor nerve ; to the centre along a
sensory nerve ?

That there are two Neurilities is extremely improbable, nor is there
a shadow of evidence in its favour. Neither motions nor sensations be-
long to the nerves themselves, but to the muscles and centres, stimulated
by the nerves. It is only in the looseness of unsystematized phraseology,
that we speak of "sensitive impressions" being "conveyed to the

LEWES ON THE SKN'SOliY ANJ> MOTOE FUNCTIONS OF NERVES. 179

brain ;" and of " motor-impulses" being " conveyed to the muscles ;" it
is the stimulated nerves which excite the activity of brain and muscles,
as the spark excites the explosive activity of gunpowder. We do not
need three kinds of Contractility for flexors, extensors, and sphincters ;
nor do we need three kinds of Neurility for muscles, centres, and glands.
One property serves for the three functions. The differences in the
functions do not depend on the organs themselves, but on the connexion
of these organs with others ; the same organ (nerve) which, in con-
nexion with a muscle, produces motion, in connexion with a gland
would produce secretion.

The idea of different Neurilities must, therefore, be rejected. The
two nerves having similar structure must have similar properties ; but
these properties may be put to different uses. My critic in the British
and Foreign Medical Review seems to have wholly misunderstood me ;
and thinks that had I been "longer engaged in the study of physiology,"
I should be " less inclined to rest upon an apparent similarity of struc-
ture as justifying an inference of identity of property." Perhaps his
longer study will enable him to enlighten me on this point ; at present
my conviction is, that if the similarity were only apparent, it would amply
justify the inference ; whereas, if the similarity were real, and not appa-
rent only, it would carry a demonstration. My critic seems to think other-
wise ; and he is kind enough to say that my " dogmatism on this point,
indeed, is absolutely confounding to those who have been accustomed to
look with marvel at the diversity of operations performed by elementary
parts which present no appreciable structural differences." One natu
rally feels a little perplexed at having confounded others by one's dog-
matism, when the point in question is so excessively simple as the dis-
crimination between properties and uses. I would, therefore, submit
that the operations performed by means of chain cables, tenpenny nails,
marling spikes, and grappling irons, though various enough, are not
generally held as evidence that the iron of which they are all composed
has different properties in each. I never denied that different nerves
had different functions, but only that they had different properties. If
any one conceives that the anterior roots send forth nerves having a
Neurility as widely opposed to that of the nerves issuing from the pos-
terior roots as Motion is to Sensation, let his evidence be produced. If
he conceives that the anterior nerves will only act in one direction, and
the posterior in another and contrary direction, so that the motor nerve
cannot excite a centre, and the sensory cannot excite a muscle or a gland,
let him produce his evidence. Meanwhile, I will suggest the evidence
against such a notion.

It has been proved by Schiff, and others, that the nerve loiU conduct
both ways ; not only will it conduct electricity, it will conduct its own
proper stimulus. In other words, it has been shown experimentally
that Neurility will act both in the centripetal and centrifugal directions.
I will now call attention to a still more striking fact, one which has
strangely enough been overlooked, probably because investigators were
seeking only the phenomena of sensation and motion ; a fact which dis-

180 ORIGINAL ARTICLES.

proves the fundamental position of the established doctrine that a sensory
nerve conducts only to a centre, never from it. Let any one follow the
distribution of the Fifth Pair. Of the three trunks, into which this
nerve is divided as it issues from the posterior root, two are called sen-
sory, and the third is called " mixed," because, after its emergence from
the Gasserian ganglion, it is joined by the nerve from the motor root.
No fibres whatever from this anterior (motor) root join the two first
trunks ; and these two trunks are, therefore, considered on every ground
of anatomy and experiment to be purely sensory. Now, I think it de-
monstrable by anatomy and experiment that these so-called sensory
nerves have the distinguishing characters of motor nerves ; that is to say,
one of these nerves can be proved to transmit Neurility from the centre
to an organ; and the other will not transmit a " sensitive impression" to
its centre.

The first trunk is the ophthalmic. Among the parts it supplies
there is one deserving particular notice — the lachrymal gland. This
is the secreting organ, which is innervated solely from a branch of the
ophthalmic, and a twig of the superior maxillary — that is to say, from
the two purely " sensory" trunks. Yet that these nerves have a part
to play in the mechanism of secretion is proved beyond a doubt by the
great diminution of the secretion which follows division of the trunk.
It is true that division of the trunk does not wholly suspend the secre-
tion ; but that is because the influence of a nerve upon the gland is
only that of a stimulus. Let the part played by the nerves be never so
small, the fact that some influence over the secretion is exercised by
them, proves that they transmit a stimulus from the centre to the organ
— they act centrifugally ; which is precisely the character claimed for
a motor nerve. "What the nature of the influence may be which nerves
exercise on glands is still a mystery ; nor is it necessary for the present
argument that anything more than the fact of a transmitted stimulus be
admitted ; but that fact is conclusive. All the argument needs is that
a sensory nerve will act centrifugally ; that proved, it follows that, if
properly connected with a muscle, it would act upon the muscle as it
acts upon the gland, viz., it would stimulate it.

Miiller seems to have been on the point of adopting this view, bnt was
held back by another consideration. ' ' The affection of the nerviis lachry-
malis," he says, "under the influence of certain passions and ideas, is
apparently an instance of the transmission of nervous influence in a
centrifugal direction in a decidedly sensitive nerve ; and this would be
decisive proof that sensitive nerves can propagate nervous action in the
centrifugal direction, if it were certain that the lachrymal nerve is
not, like other branches of the fifth, accompanied by branches of the
sympathetic. But it is probable that the lachrymal nerve receives grey
fibres."* It is to be regretted that this great physiologist did not
pursue the investigation, and assure himself of the actual facts. Had

* Miiller, Physiology, I., 726.

LEWES ON THE SENSORY AND MOTOR FUNCTIONS OF NERVES. 181

he done so, I believe he would have seen that no grey fibres mingle
with this lachrymal branch. I have sought in vain for any connexion
between the sympathetic and this branch ; and Hirschfeld states that it
is only the filaments of the sympathetic which accompany the artery
in the gland, to which the secretion may be due, after division of the
fifth. " La branche lachrymale du nerf ophthahnique de Willis, et un
filet lachrymale de la branche orbitaire du nerf maxillair superieur, se
distribuent dans la glande lachrymale et tiennent en grande partie sous
leur dependance la secretion des larmes ; car celle-ci diminue conside-
rablement apres la section de la cinquienie paire, mais sans cesser, toute-
fois, completement. Ce qui a fait supposer que les filets du grand sym-
pathetique qui accompagnent les arteres de la glande lachrymale avaient
aussi une certaine influence sur la secretion."-'' Observe that not only has
the presence of the grey fibres in the lachrymal nerve to be demonstrated
as a fact, but I think their presence might be admitted without damage to
my argument ; for an examination of the connexion which does exist
between the sympathetic and the fifth pair, will show that division of
the fifth would not interfere with the action of the sympathetic fila-
ments joining it from the carotid. Granting, therefore, that one part
of the nervous stimulus reaches the gland through the sympathetic, we
have still the greater part reaching it through the lachrymal nerve.
In other words, a sensory nerve acts centrifugally.

The second point to which I referred, in the functions of the fifth, is
the " insensibility" of the nasal branch; but .this must be noticed pre-
sently, in connexion with the analogous " insensibility" of the motor
nerves.

If there is any difference between sensory and motor nerves, it is not
a difference of kind, but of use. Each nerve is capable of serving either
function, provided it be properly distributed. If nerves are distributed
through the substance of muscles, they will be motor — if distributed
through glands, they will be secretory — if distributed to the surfaces, they
will be sensory. There will probably be little objection raised to this
statement. But we must go farther, and ask whether the skin-nerve is ever
motor, and whether the muscle-nerve is ever sensory ? To answer this,
we must first settle one or two points of physiology and anatomy. A
nerve is sensory because it stimulates the Sensibility of its Centre, and
not because its termination is in the skin. It is not the nerve which is
sensitive, bat the centre. Stimuli, which reach the nerve through the
skin, affect the centre. It is to the centre, therefore, that we must
look. So much for physiology ; now for anatomy. " There is no dif-
ference," says Dr. Todd, "between a motor and sensory nerve as regards
structure. We can attribute the difference of endowment of the fibres
to no other cause but to the nature of their peripheral and central con-
nexions. The same nervous force is propagated by the fibres of each kind;
but whether that force is to excite motion or sensation, must depend on

Hirschfeld, Nevrologie, p. 250.

182 ORIGINAL ARTICLES.

the connexion of the fibres with muscles in the one case, and with the
centre of sensation in the other."* The principle here laid down is
irreversible ; bat it is an error to suppose that only one of the nerves is
in connexion with the centre of sensation. I pointed out the fact,
which had been universally disregarded, that the anterior (motor) roots
were quite as unmistakeably in anatomical connexion with the gan-
glionic substance of the spinal chord, as the posterior roots were ;
and the conclusion seemed irresistible, that if one nerve in connexion
with a centre will stimulate the activity of that centre, another nerve
precisely analogous in structure, and endowed with an analogous pro-
perty (propagating the same nervous force), if also in connexion with
that centre, must also stimulate its activity. Modern microscopic re-
searches have rendered the direct connexion of the anterior roots with
the ganglionic substance, a fact beyond dispute. To resist the con-
clusion I have drawn, it. will be necessary to prove : 1st. That the
ganglionic substance with which the anterior roots is connected has not
the same property as the ganglionic substance of the posterior roots ;
or, 2nd. That nerves are only capable of stimulating in one direction.
But it has been proved by Schiff that there is no difference between the
properties of the anterior and posterior horus. And it has also been
proved that nerves conduct in both ways.

If, therefore, Sensibility is the property of Nerve-centres awakened
by the stimulus of JN"eurility — if both nerves are in direct anatomical
connexion with their centres — and if there be not two different kinds of
ISTeurility, acting in very different ways upon the centre — there is no al-
ternative but to accept the conclusion that both nerves have a sensory
function.

In vindicating the essential similarity of the two sets of nerves, we
are not overlooking their specific diversity. The functions of various
nerves, that is to say, the uses they serve in the mechanism, depend
upon their anatomical connexions. A nerve that is not distributed to a
muscle cannot be expected to have a motor function ; a nerve that is not
distributed to a gland cannot be expected to have a secretory function ;
a nerve that is not distributed to an organ of sense cannot be expected
to have a function of special Sensation.

Bell's discovery that the anterior roots ministered to motion, and the
posterior to sensation, may be interpreted thus : the anterior nerves are
muscle-nerves, the posterior are skin-nerves. My critic in the British
and Foreign demurs to this. " It is known to every anatomist," he says,
" that it is a pure assumption on the part of Mr. Lewes to assert that the
fibres of the anterior roots are distributed fexclusively to the muscles,
and those of the posterior roots exclusively to the skin. How, we would
ask, is it possible anatomically to separate the fibres of the anterior and
the posterior roots in any nerve of mixed endowments ? and on what
basis, save that of physiological experiment, can any positive statement

Todd, Physiol, of Nervous System, in Cyclopaed. of Anat. and Phys.

LEWES ON Tin: SENSORY AND MOTOR FUNCTIONS OF UEB.VES. 183

be made as to their peripheral distribution ?" An experiment will con-
vince my critic that it is not only " possible" to separate the fibres, but
that my " assumption" is easily demonstrated. Let him divide the an-
terior roots of the nerves supplying one of the extremities of a frog, and
he will find that all the fibres in the muscles of that extremity degenerate,
but .none of those distributed over the sheath or to the skin. A more
absolute proof could not be required. I would further remark that it is
not enough for a nerve to pass through or along a muscle, its filaments
must terminate in the substance of the muscle, if its function is to be
motor.

My critic is also inaccurate in stating that I attribute the difference
of function of the two nerves entirely to their peripheral distribution.
He should have said mainly; the difference in their central distribution is
insisted on, as one of the reasons why the muscular sensations differ from
the skin sensations. Both nerves are directly connected with the spinal
chord, and " both must, therefore, have a similar functional relation to
it." The critic should not have passed over the emphatic sentence of
the next paragraph, — " Observe, I say the relation is similar, not the
same. It requires but a moderate acquaintance with microscopic ana-
tomy to be aware that the anterior and posterior roots differ in their
distribution over the spinal chord ; indeed, it is partly on this difference
that I explain the different forms of Sensibility excited by each root.
But, underlying this diversity, there is a fundamental agreement.
Hence they may be called similar, though not the same. The form of
sensibility excited by the anterior root is as unlike the form of sensi-
bility excited by the posterior, as the sensation of sound is unlike the
sensation of light, which are nevertheless similar, in being both sensa-
tions."

I endeavoured to prove by experiment that it was through the ante-
rior nerves that the " muscular sense" was excited. The evidence can-
not be reproduced here ; but, perhaps, for the sake of argument, the
reader will admit the point as proved, and we may then show that the
one objection which is always raised against the sensory function of the
anterior nerves falls to the ground. When both anterior and posterior
roots are divided, an irritation of the central ends of the anterior, pro-
duces none of the ordinary signs of sensation ; but the irritation of the
posterior produces unequivocal signs of pain. This is held to be con-
clusive against the sensory functions of the anterior root. But is it so ?
On the supposition that the anterior root serves the muscular sense, we
have no right to expect anything than what we find. The muscular sensa-
tions are as special as those of sight or hearing, and every special sense re-
sponds only in its special form: the optic nerve, when irritated, produces
sensation of light, but no pain ; the auditory nerve a sensation of sound,
but none of temperature, light, or pain. In like manner, the irritation of
a muscle-nerve will produce the sensations habitually produced by that
nerve, which are not those of pain. My assertion that muscular sensations
are not those of pain has been scornfully rejected, and a reference made
to the agonies of cramp. But cramp, I must maintain, with Schiff and

184 ORIGINAL ARTICLES.

others, is not a muscle-pain ; it is produced by pressure on the nerves of
the muscle-sheath, or of some neighbouring nerve.* And I have proved
that no sign of pain is elicited by burning or pricking the muscle itself.

Now, if we are justified in attributing muscular sensibility to
the anterior nerves, it is obvious that these nerves, when irritated, can
only excite muscular sensations — no others. It is further obvious that
the signs of such sensations must be very different from those of other
sensations. Irritation of the root can only produce that sensation which
precedes or accompanies adjustment of the muscles, or one of the vague
diffusive sensations which the muscles contribute to the general con-
sciousness. The direct response to such a sensation would be an adjust-
ment of the muscles to which the particular nerves were sent ; but this
cannot take place, because the connexion between the nerves and the
muscles is cut off. None, therefore, of the ordinary signs could be ma-
nifested. But is this a proof that the muscle-nerves are not sensory ?
To say so, would be to say that the optic nerve is not sensory, because it
may be divided without the animal's manifesting any sign.

A few paragraphs back, allusion was made to the fact, that one of the
nerves of the fifth pair has an "insensible branch" — will not transmit sen-
sitive impressions (as the phrase is usually understood) more than a motor
nerve will. Claude Bernard says : ' ' Examinant chez le chien le nerf naso-
palatin qui va a la membrane muqueuse du nez nous avons ete tres surpris
de le trouver en apparence completement insensible, tandis que la branche
principale, la sous orbitaire, nous offrait tous les signes d'une sensibilite
vive." Here are two branches of the same nerve (both sensory), yet
one of them completely without response to the stimulus which ex-
cited the others. Did Bernard thence conclude that the naso-palatine
was not sensory? By no means. " Cette insensibilite d'un rameau
appartenant a la cinquieme paire porterait a penser qu'elle renferme
des filet de sensibilite speciale ; Majendie ayant prouve que les nerfs
de sensations speciales sont completement insensibles aux irritations me-
caniques."\

That all nerves may be, and that most are, double in function, the
muscle-nerve being predominantly motor, because distributed to motor
organs, whereas the skin-nerve is only distributed to the minute mus-
cles of the skin, may be inferred from the anatomy of the invertebrata,
in whom no double roots exist. Let us examine the ventral ohord of a
bee. From each ganglion one nerve-trunk issues, to supply both skin
and muscles of each side. The first time I made a preparation of the
bee's nervous system, I was forcibly arrested by this unity of motor and
sensory nerves. But as I then believed in the classical doctrine, the ex-
planation quickly suggested itself that, in the bee, there had not yet
taken place that specialization into motor and sensory, which was found
in vertebrata. True enough : but what is the specialization ? Is it
the introduction of a new kind of nerve, or only the assignment of one

* Schiff Lehrbuch. tier Physiol., I., 158. f Bernard, II., 95.

CARPENTER ON FORAMINIFERA. % 185

set of nerves to muscles, and of another to the skin ? Clearly the latter ;
for there is nothing in the nature of the nerve tissue itself to prevent its
serving both functions, as we see in the animal which has only one nerve
for both : this nerve is not, as in vertebrata, split up into two, having
two different origins, and two different peripheral terminations, but is
one nerve, with one origin, sending off branches, here to muscles, and
there to surfaces.

In his memoir on the Haliotis, M. Lacaze-Dnthiers notices that the
optic nerve has two kinds of branches, "les uns, que Ton pourraitnom-
mer tegumentaires, et les autres oettfo/m proprenient dits. Les premiers
se distribuent aux teguments et aux tissus contractiles de nature mus-
culaire qui forment les parois du tubercle ; evidement ils apportent et
la sensibilite et la motilite a ce support de 1'organe de la vision." He
notices as remarkable, that from the very trunk of a nerve of special
sense, branches are given off, which are nerves of general sensibility
and nerves of motion. But he contents himself with the supposition
that there may be sensitive and motor fibres in this trunk, separate at
their origin, though combined together in the trunk. This is, how-
ever, irreconcileable with microscopic observation of the molluscan
nervous system ; for when there are fibres, they are nothing but linear
arrangements of the granular mass filling the neurilemma, which enter
the ganglion together, and not from separate parts corresponding to
anterior and posterior horns.

I will not extend this paper further, by any attempt to assign more
definitely the functions of the nerves. The question at issue is : Are
we justified in denying a sensory function to the anterior nerves, and a
motor function to the posterior nerves ? Is the difference between them
one of property, or of function ?

XIX. — General Results of the Study of Typicax Forms of Forami-
nifera, in their relation to the systematic arrangement of
that Group, and to the Fundamental Principles of Natural His-
tory Classification. By William B. Carpenter, M.D., F.R.S.,
F.L.S., F.G.S.

Having been for some time engaged in the study of a series of typical
representatives of several of the chief natural divisions of the Foramini-
fera,** and finding that the general results of my inquiries are fully
borne out by the study of other types prosecuted on the like method by
Messrs. Rupert Jones and W. K. Parker, I think it desirable to draw
the attention of naturalists to them, not merely as fixing the principles

* See my Researches on Foraminifera, first and second Series, in the Philosophical
Transactions for 1856; third Series, op. cit., 1859 ; fourth Series, op. cit., 1860.
VOL. I. — N. H. R. 2 B

186 ORIGINAL ARTICLES.

which must be taken as a guide in any attempt to frame a natural clas-
sification of that group, but as having an important bearing upon some
of those higher questions relating to the origin and value of differential
characters generally, which have recently been brought prominently
under consideration. In so doing, it is my desire to confine myself
purely to the scientific and practical aspect of these questions ; seeking
in the first place to determine, on the legitimate basis of induction,
what general principles may be educed from the comparison of the large
body of facts which I have brought together as regards the classification
of Foraminifera ; and then briefly inquiring how far the results of simi-
lar comparisons, made upon other types of organized structure, justify
the extension of the same principles to the Animal and Vegetable King-
doms at large.

It may be well for me to advert in limine to certain peculiar features
in this inquiry, that render the group to which it relates singularly
adapted for a comparison at once minute and comprehensive amongst a
wide range of individual forms. The size of the greater part of these
organisms is so small, that many hundreds, thousands, or even tens of
thousands of them, may be contained in a pill-box ; and yet it is usually
not too minute to prevent the practised observer from distinguishing the
most important peculiarities of each individual by a hand-magnifier
alone, or from dealing with it separately by a very simple kind of mani-
pulation. Hence the systematist can easily select and arrange in series
such of his specimens as display sufficient mutual conformity, whilst he
sets apart such as are transitional or osculant ; and an extensive range
of varieties may thus be displayed within so small a compass, that the
most divergent and the connecting forms are all recognizable nearly in
the same glance. I am not acquainted with any other group of natural
objects in which such ready comparison of great numbers of individuals
can be made ; and I am much mistaken if there be a single species of
plant or animal, of which the range of variations has been studied by
the collocation and comparison under one survey of so large an assem-
blage of specimens as have passed under review in the course of these
investigations.

The general fact which I desire to bring prominently forward as the
result of my investigations into this group, is, that in all the types pos-
sessing a wide geographical distribution which have been specially
studied by myself, or by others, the range of variation has also been
very wide ; so that not only what have been considered as specific, but
such as have been regarded as generic, and in some cases even as ordinal
differences, present themselves among organisms, which, from the inti-
macy of the mutual relationship that is evinced by the gradational cha-
racter of those differences, as well as by the variation presented in the
several parts of one and the same organism, must in all probability have
had a common origin.*

* I have the authority of M. Deshayes for the belief that the excessive multiplication
of generic and specific distinctions, which so greatly impairs the value of the late M.

CARPENTER ON EORAMISIFERA. 187

And it appears to me a justifiable inference from this fact, that the
wide range of forms which this group contains, is more likely to have
come into existence as a result of modifications successively occurring
in the course of descent from a small number of original types, than by
the vast numbers of originally distinct creations which on the ordinary
hypothesis would be required to account for it.*

The greater part of my first inemoir was devoted to the investigation
of a single type, Orbitolites; and I there showed, that not only as regards
the size, shape, and other external characters of the organism as a whole,
but even as regards the size and form of its elementary parts, in which
greater constancy might be expected, is there so great a variation (the
most marked diversities being apparent even in different parts of the
same specimen), that all attempts to found specific distinctions upon such
variations are utterly futile. But further, I showed that a distinction
on which almost any naturalist would feel justified in relying, as of
specific if not of generic value, that between the simple type in which
all the cells are arranged on only one plane, and the complex type in which
there are two superficial planes more or less strongly differentiated
from the median, is no less invalid. For although these types are usually
distinguishable the one from the other without the least difficulty, yet
they are often combined in the same individuals, and this in such a va-
riety of modes, that the transition from the simple to the complex may
be clearly seen, by the comparison of a sufficient number of specimens,
to be by no means attributable to a mere advance of age. Further,
having been furnished (by the kindness of Mr. H. J". Carter) with spe-
cimens of the Scindian fossil which presents the characters ascribed by
M. D'Orbigny to his genus Cyclolina, I find, as I had anticipated, that
this genus is foimded upon a mere variety of Orbitolites, in which the
character of the surface-marking is more than ordinarily cyclical. Not
merely, however, does the range of variation of this type confound the
ordinary distinctions of systematists in regard to species and genera ; it
extends also to that difference in plan of growth which has been assumed
by M. D'Orbigny of such fundamental importance, as justly to constitute
the essential difference between his two orders Cyclostegues and Heli-
costegues. For, as I have shown, although Orbitolites is typically cy-
clical from its commencement, yet specimens frequently present them-
selves in which its early development has taken place so completely on

D'Orbigny's labours upon this group, was due to his having based these distinctions upon
specimens selected for him as typical, and to his having disregarded the transitional
forms which any large collection of these organisms'is sure to contain in abundance ; thus,
to use the admirable discrimination of the Prince of Canino, " describing specimens ra-
ther than species.'''

* In order to avoid misapprehension, I would here remark that the production of any
organism seems to me just as much to require the exertion of Divine Power, when it
takes place in the ordinary course of generation, as it would do if that organism were to
be called into existence de novo ; the question being, in reality, whether that exertion
takes place in the way of continuous exercise, according to a settled and a comprehensive
plan, or by a succession of disconnected efforts.

188 ORIGINAL ARTICLES.

the helical plan, that if such had been collected before their assumption
of the cyclical mode of growth, their essentially Cyclostegue character
would not have been suspected.

Again, I have shown (2nd series) that a parallel variation is displayed
by the genus Orbiculina, whose ordinarily helical plan of growth has
caused M. D'Orbigny to range it among his Helicostegues, notwithstanding
that in fully developed specimens its mode of growth is not unfrequently
cyclical. The occasional exchange in this type of one plan of increase
for the other, at an advanced period of life, is a fact of very high interest;
for when an Orbiculina has undergone this change, the outer or cyclical
portion of its disk can in no way be distinguished from that of Orbitoli-
tes ; and the only difference between these two types which has any
semblance of validity is the absence in Orbitolites of those successive
encasings of the central nucleus, the presence of which seems to be a
constant feature in Orbiculina.

It is to be observed, however, that these successive encasings are
due entirely to the extension of the later whorls of the spire over the
earlier, and that they are no longer found in Orbiculina when the heli-
cal mode of growth gives place to the cyclical. Hence it seems not un-
fair to surmise that if the helical growth of an aberrant Orbitolites were
to continue until its spire had made several turns, instead of stopping
before the completion of one, its nucleus would receive successive in-
vestments from successive whorls, just as in the typical Orbiculina, and
the only difference between these two types would thus vanish.

On the other hand, if the helical growth of an Orbiculina were to
give place to the cyclical at an unusually early period, the central
nucleus would receive no investment, and would present the flatness
by which that of Orbitolites is characterised as compared with that of
the typical Orbiculina. Hence the idea of the derivation of Orbitolites
and Orbiculina from the same original must be admitted to be scarcely
less probable than that of the derivation of the helical and the cyclical
forms of Orbiculina, or of the simple and complex types of Orbitolites,
from a common parentage.

Let us now apply the same mode of inquiry to Alveolina. I have
shown (2nd series) thatthis organismis closely allied in every other respect
than its geometrical plan of growth to the types we have just been consi-
dering ; the structure of the shell and its relations to the contained body,
and the relations of the segments of that body to each other, and to the
external world, being essentially the same in them all.

ISTow however improbable it may seem at first sight that an Orbi-
tolites, which extends itself as a flat or bi-concave disk by successive con-
centric growths, and an Alveolina acquiring a fusiform shape by
successive turns round a progressively elongating axis, should have a
common original, yet, when the intermediate links are duly studied,
a continuous gradation is found to be established. For, as has just
been shown, a longer continuance of the helical mode of growth in
which Orbitolites often commences, would really produce an Orbiculina,
with its centre so invested by successive whorls as to form a vertical

CABPENTEE ON FOBAMINIFEBA. 189

linear axis; and wc find this axis in Orliculina, sometimes equalling in
length the diameter of the spire, so that this organism at an early stage of
its growth may be nearly spheroidal. Now among the various types of
fossil Alveolina, there are some whose shape, instead of being fusi-form,
like that of the recent type I have described, is almost identical with
that of a spheroidal Orliculina ; and the general structure of two such
organisms will be so nearly identical, that I cannot see any difficulty
in referring them to a common original. And when we examine a
series of such fossil types, we see that the}' present a wider and wider
divarication from the Orliculina type in this one particular alone, that
whilst the later growth of Orliculina tends to liken it to Orbitolites, that
of Alveolina tends to the continual elongation of its vertical axis — a dif-
ference which all analogy would indicate to be one of far too small
account in this group to be justly taken as a ground of original dis-
tinction.

In the assemblage of forms which I have thought myself justified in
re-assembling under the designation Peneroplis (3rd series), we encounter
other remarkable series of variations, the principal of which have given
occasion to the formation of the two additional genera Dendritina and Spi-
rolina. With an exceedingly close conformity in the texture and in the
superficial markings of their shells, as well as in their general plan of
growth, we observe a marked diversity in the form and proportions of
the spire, especially in the later stages of its growth, and a still greater
divergence in regard to the form and disposition of the septal apertures.
For in the type to which M. D'Orbigny restricts the generic designa-
tion Peneroplis, we usually find the spire rapidly widening and becom-
ing proportionally compressed in each succeeding convolution ; whilst
in that which he distinguished as Dendritina, the spire widens but
slowly whilst increasing rapidly in turgidity. Further, in the one
type, as in the other, the later extension is often in a straight line,
instead of continuing to follow the spiral course ; and on this variation
alone, which (as will presently appear) is of no account whatever among
Foraminifera, has been erected the genus Spirolina. Now, in the typical
Peneroplis, the septal plane presents a single linear series of minute
rounded pores, whilst in the typical Dendritina we find in their place
a single large orifice with radiating extensions, the difference between
these two modes of communication being as great as we find between al-
most any two types of Foraminifera whatever. Yet I believe that no one
who will go through the details of the evidence" I have collected from
the study of transitional forms, will have any doubt that Peneroplis and
Dendritina may have had a common progenitor, and that the peculiarity
in the mode of septal communication that characterises each is intimately
related to the compressed or turgid form of the spire in each case ; whilst
the different forms of Spirolina t}-pe, among which we find the most
remarkable transitional conditions of aperture, are so obviously related
to one or other of the foregoing, that no reasonable doubt can exist of their
derivation from these. Now, the geographical distribution of the two
fundamental types is so far different, that where one prevails, the other

190 OEIGINAL ARTICLES.

is either absent altogether, or presents itself under a modified form ; and
thus we seem justified in the belief that whether either has been derived
from the other, or both have been derived from some intermediate form
(such as that which seems common alike to the young of both), the
modifications which have given rise to the marked differences they
now exhibit, are mainly due to diversities in the external conditions
under which they have been respectively propagated.

But to what other type does Peneroplis itself present the closest
approximation ? By systematists in general, the intimate relationship
which I have shown it to possess to the helical type of Orbiculina has
been so slightly regarded, that it has been considered as at least equally
related to the Operculina type ; and yet, as I shall presently show,
these two types are removed from each other in all the most essential
features of their structure, as far as any two polythalamous Foramini-
fera can be. And the idea of the derivation of Peneroplis from the same
stock with Orbiculina seems justified by the fact that the young forms
of the two are frequently so alike as not to be distinguishable by exter-
nal characters alone, whilst their internal difference consists only in the
presence or the absence of the secondary or transverse septa — a character
which I have shown reason to regard as variable in this group.*

Notwithstanding, therefore, the apparently wide divergence of the
cyclical Orbitolites, the helical Orbiculina, the fusiform Alveolina, and
the simply-chambered Peneroplis and Dendritina, these several types
must be regarded as most intimately related to one another ; and that
relationship seems to me much more likely to have arisen from a com-
mon ancestral descent, than from the original creation of independent
types, capable of graduating into each other so continuously as almost to
assume each other's characters.

It is very important to remark that they all possess that peculiar
texture of shell, which is designated by Professor Williamson as porcel-
lanous ; presenting an opaque white hue when seen by reflected light,
but a rich brown or amber colour, when seen by light transmitted
through thin natural lamellae or artificial sections. This substance is
entirely structureless, and possesses no great density or tenacity. More-
over, in all the foregoing types, each of the septa intervening between
the chambers consists of only a single layer ; and the passages of com-
munication between them are, for the most part, so large and free, that
the segments of the sarcode-body are but very imperfectly isolated from
each other ; and, as might be anticipated from this incompleteness of sepa-
ration, it is here that variations in the mode of communication between
the chambers seem to be of least account. It is in this type that we re-

* My statement on this point is fully confirmed by Messrs. Parker and Rupert Jones,
who state that, not " unfrequently, feebly-developed Peneropliform varieties, as well as
good-sized Adunciform specimens, occur, in which the long narrow chambers are at
times simple and undivided, being occupied by transversely-elongate lobes of sarcode, in-
stead of numerous minute, sub-cubical blocks." See Ann. of Nat. Hist., March, 1860,
p. 180.

CARPENTER ON FORAMINIFERA. 191

cognize the nearest approximation towards such forms as Thalassicolla,
which seem to connect Orbitolites with Sponges ; while the relationship
which Orbiculina and Peneroplis have been supposed to bear to the or-
dinary Helicostegues, being dependent only on plan of growth, and being
utterly at variance with the essential characters of the two groups, must
be regarded as one of analogy, not affinity. Looking to the evidence
I have adduced in regard to the prevalence of particular modifications of
Orbitolites in particular localities, and to the influence of the geographi-
cal distribution of the Peneroplis type upon the modifications it presents,
we seem justified in extending the same view to those larger (though
not more essential), differentiations which these types must have under-
gone on the hypothesis of their derivation from the same original. The
following may be suggested as the mode in which the existing forms
might thus have diverged from each other, and from their primary type.

ORBICULINA TYPE,

Diverging into

( ^

Peneroplis. Orbiculina.

_A__

Dendritina, Peneroplis, Alveolina, Orbiculina,

Dendritina, Spirolina, Alveolina, Orbiculina,

Peneroplis. Orbitolites.

Passing on, now, to an essentially different group, of which Oper-
culina may be taken as the type, I have shown that the relation of the
discoidal Cycloclypeus and the helicene Heterostegina is of essentially the
same nature with that of Orbitolites and Orbiculina; the minute structure
of the shell and the physiological condition of the sarcode- body being essen-
tially the same in the two organisms, and the only important divergence
between them being in their plan of growth. Prom the rarity of Cyclo-
clypeus, all the specimens of which yet known have been brought from
one locality, I have not yet had the opportunity of ascertaining whether
it ever presents in an early stage any approximation to the helical mode
of growth ; but such a deficiency of affirmative evidence is obviously not
equivalent to a disproof of what has strong analogy in its favour.

The variations which I have described (3rd series) among the different
forms of Operculina, although limited to the form of the spire, and the cha-
racter of the surface-markings, would be amply sufficient to justify the
erection of numerous species, were it not-ibr the connexion established be-
tween the most divergent forms by intermediate links, and the necessity
for an almost indefinite multiplication of hypothetical originals which the
adoption of such a method would involve. The existence of such a
large extent of variation among the specimens collected in the same lo-
cality must be admitted as valid evidence of the facility with wrhich
differential characters develope themselves in this type ; and a strong
probability is thus afforded in favour of the varietal character of larger

192 ORIGINAL ARTICLES.

differences among individuals whose conditions of existence are very
diverse. Hence the analogy of Operculina affords good grounds to sur-
mise that many of the reputed species in the nearly-allied genus Nummu-
lites have no real title to that rant ; the differences among many of them
being not nearly so great as those we have met with among the varieties
of Operculina ; whilst those presented by many others do not exceed
what might be reasonably expected to occur under a greater variety of
modifying agencies. But I have shown that it may be fairly questioned
whether there is adequate ground for upholding the generic distinctness
of Operculina and Nummiilites ; the characteristic by which the latter
has been asserted to be specially distinguished, being not unfrequently
observable as a varietal difference in the former. The form which I
have described under the designation of Amphistegina Cumingii,* bears
a striking resemblance to the ordinary Nummuline type in the early part
of its growth, and to the ordinary Operculine in the later ; and may be
regarded as in many respects a connecting link between the two.

There appears, then, strong reason for considering Cycloclypeus, He-
terostegina, Operculina, Nummulites, and Amphistegina as related to each
other in the same manner and degree as the leading forms already enu-
merated under the Orbiculine group. And it is very curious to observe
the perfect analogy which prevails in regard to the forms under which
these two great types of structure -^essentially different as they are —
tend to develope themselves. As I have already pointed out, the rela-
tion of Cycloclypeus to Heterostegina is exactly that of Orbitolites to
Orbiculina. So, if the transverse or secondary septa of Heterostegina
were undeveloped, we should have an Operculina, Nummulina, or Am-
phistegina (these three types being, in my view, essentially one and the
same), just as the like deficiency actually occurring in Orbiculina gives
to it all the essential characters of Peneroplis. And the parallelism
seems to be completed by the existence in Fusulina\ of the same meta-
morphic condition of this type, that Alveolina is of the Orbiculine. The
accordance of all these in the highly elaborated texture of the shell, in
the relation which this bears to the segments of the sarcode-body, and
in the presence of an intermediate skeleton with its canal system, is ex-
tremely close. The substance of the shell is very dense, and of almost
vitreous transparence where it is not perforated by the minute closely-
set tubuli, which usually pass direct from the interior of the chambers
towards the external surface . Each segment of the body has its own
proper envelope, so that the septa between the chambers are composed

* It is questioned by Messrs. Parker and Rupert Jones whether this is a true Am-
phistegina, chiefly on account of its bilateral symmetry (Ann. of Nat. Hist., Feb., 1860,
p. 111). But I have met with perfect bilateral symmetry in specimens warranted as
Amphistegina by those excellent judges of that type.

f I have not yet been able to satisfy myself as to the precise affinities of Fusulina,
the metamorphic condition of its shell interfering with the minute study of its structure;
but my view of its nature essentially corresponds with that of Messrs. Parker and Rupert
Jones. (See Quart. Journ. of Geol. Soc, Nov., 1860, p. 458.)

CARPENTER ON FORAMINIFERA. 193

of two distinct laminae, which diverge from each other where they give
passage to the canal system, and which are often further separated by
the intervention of a portion of the intermediate skeleton. The pas-
sages of communication between the chambers are so narrow, that seg-
ments of the body are much more isolated from each other than they
are in the type already described ; and the proper walls of the chambers
seem, as it were, to be moulded upon the segments, instead of merely
filling- up the interspaces, between them, as they there do. This filling
up, in fact, is the office of the intermediate skeleton, which gives
a solidity to the whole aggregation that it would otherwise want ; and
special provision, as we have seen, is made in the canal system for its
nutrition. Altogether this type is the one in which the Foraniiniferous
structure attains its highest development, and which is most completely
differentiated from every other. And the morphological variations it is
known to undergo seem to me fully to justify the inference that such
further variations as have been shown to occur in the Orbiculine typo
might be regarded as the probable source of the divergence from some
common ancestral stock of the several forms whose intimate relationship
I have demonstrated. The analogy of that type would suggest Iletero-
stegina as presenting the nearest existing approximation to such a com-
mon original ; and the stages of differentiation may be thus expressed : —

HETEROSTEGIXE TYPE,

Diverging into

QPERCTJLINA. HeTEROSTEGINA.

Amphistegina, jNTuniniulites, Operculina. Heterostegina, Cycoclypeus.

From my imperfect acquaintance with Fusirfina, I do not feel justified
in expressing its exact relationship to either of the forms included in this
scheme; and, for the same reason, I abstain from connecting Orbitoides
with Cyclochjpeus, to which it has some features of close relationship.^

After this detailed examination of the general relations of the
principal modifications of two of the most strongly-marked types to be
found in the whole group of Foraminifera, it seems needless for me to
do more with respect to the other forms whose structure I have inves-
tigated, than to inquire how far the peculiar characters by which they
are respectively distinguished show evidence of a like variability. Thus
I have shown (4th series) that Calcarina is essentially distinguished from
Rotalia by the extraordinary development of the intermediate or supple-

* The figure given by Prof. Ehrenberg, in his remarkable memoir already referred
to, " Ueber den Griinsand und seine Erlauterung des organischen Lebens," Plate IV.,
fig. 8, and by him designated as the internal cast of Orbitoides javaniens, will be seen
on comparison to present a most remarkable correspondence with figs. 10, 11, 12, of
Plate XXIX., illustrating my description of Cycloclypeus.
VOL. I. N. U. R. 2 C

194 ORIGINAL ARTICLES.

mental skeleton, and by the extension of this into radiating prolongations.
But the number, forms, and proportions of these prolongations are sub-
ject to very considerable variations; so that, whilst they are sometimes
so greatly multiplied and prolonged as to constitute the principal feature
of the organism, they are so little developed in other instances, that the
contour of the disk is scarcely interrupted by them. Further, I have
shown that the development of this supplemental skeleton is, in a
great degree, independent of that of the spire ; hence, if this last be the
essential component of the organism (as all analogy indicates), the sup-
plemental skeleton must be regarded as a feature of minor importance.
On the other hand, the development of radiating out-growths is an oc-
currence not unfrequent among other helicine Foraminifera, even in
species whose typical form is altogether destitute of them (as Professor
Williamson has pointed out in Polystomella crispa) ; and such forms
differ much less widely, as regards this character, from the simpler forms
of Calcarina, than these last do from the very complex forms with which
they are connected by a continuously-gradational series. Hence, I
cannot regard the remarkable development of the supplemental skeleton
in Calcarina as affording any disproof of its genetic relationship to Ro-
talia, with which its affinity in every other particular is most inti-
mate.

If, again, we inquire into the import of that remarkable development
of the canal-system, which seems to be the distinctive feature of Polysto-
mella (4th series), we find that if we base our judgment upon a sufficiently
wide foundation of facts, its non-essential character becomes apparent. For
although the large P. craticulata of the tropical and Australian seas pre-
sents the most symmetrical and extensive distribution of the canal- sys-
tem that I have anywhere met with, the little P. crispa of our own seas
exhibits but feeble traces of it; yet of the intimacy of their relationship
no doubt can be fairly entertained. I have shown (3rd series) that a
parallel difference exists between the gigantic Ampkistegina Cumingii
and the comparatively diminutive A. gibbosa; as also (4th series) between
the two forms of Tinoporus, where its presence or absence is obviously as-
sociated with the presence or absence of the radiating prolongations, and
of the supplemental skeletons from which these proceed.

In considering the import of the canal-system as a character for the
systematist, the mode of its formation must not be left out of view. I
have shown that the passages which altogether go to make up this
system are not true vessels, but are mere sinuses, left in some cases by the
incomplete adhesion of the two contiguous walls which separate adja-
cent chambers, and in other cases apparently formed by the incomplete
calcification of the sarcode which forms the basis of the solid skeleton ;
certain portions of that substance remaining in their original condition,
so as to maintain a communication between the contents of the cham-
bers and the parts of the shelly casing most removed from them, just
as the fissures or pores which communicate between the chambers, and
between the last chamber and -the exterior, are mere unconsolidated
portions of the septa, occupied in the living state by commissural por-

CARPENTER ON FORAMIN IFER4 . 195

tions of the sarcode body. Hence it is readily conceivable how a canal-
system may be formed with considerable regularity in an organism in
which the intermediate skeleton attains a considerable development,
whilst it may be wholly or partially deficient in another, in which that
supplemental deposit of calcareous matter has taken place to a much
smaller extent. And it is to be specially observed that all those forms
in which it is at present known to attain its greatest completeness, are
those tropical or semi-tropical types, in which the influence of warmth,
abundance of food, and other external agencies in promoting develop-
ment, appear specially to favour the largest growth and the most special-
ized evolution of the Foraminiferous type.

The relations of the forms belonging to the family Miliolitidce have
recently been investigated by Mr. W. K. Parker ;* and his results are in
perfect accordance with my own. Thus in each of the genera Cornuspira,
Hauerina, and Vertebral 'ma, Mr. Parker reduces all the reputed species
to one ; while he shows that even their generic differences are really but
of small account. And he not only in like manner reduces all the
reputed species of the genus MMola to the level of varieties, but brings
down to the same rank the reputed genera Spirdloculina, Biloculina,
Triloculina, and Quinqueloculina ; the differences between which, arising
from asymmetrical growth, and from variations in the form and num-
ber of the chambers, cannot be regarded as even of specific value, the
Milioline plan of construction being preserved throughout. In the large
group of N'odosarina which has been carefully studied by Messrs. T.
Eupert Jones and "W. K. Parker, f those gentlemen have felt themselves
justified, on the like grounds in reducing a multitude of reputed genera
and species to a single type. Between the nautiloid Cristellarice and the
straight moniliform or rod- like Nodosarice, which agree in essential
characters of structure and mode of growth, they find such a continuous
series of connecting links, that no line of demarcation can be anywhere
drawn, the straight, the curved, and the spiral forms passing grada-
tionally one towards another ; and the extreme forms being thus brought
together, the various intermediate grades which have been distinguished
by systematists under the generic names Glandulina, Lingulina, Den-
talma, Rimulina, Yaginulina, Planularia, Marginulina, Dimorphina,
Flabellina, and Frondicularia, necessarily fall into the same category.

The same general doctrine having thus been shown to hold good in
regard to all the chief natural subdivisions of the Foraminiferous group,
it is not my. purpose at present to prolong the inquiry in this direction.
The systematic study of this tribe needs to be prosecuted far more ex-
tensively than my own time and opportunities have admitted, to enable
even an outline scheme to be framed, which should represent an
approach to the true relations of its principal families. But I think I

* Transactions of the Microscopical Society for 1858 (New Series, vol. vi.), p. 53.
f Annals of Natural History, Nov., 1859" p. 477 ; and Quarterly Journal of the Geo-
logical Society, August, 1860, p. 30'2 and November, 1860, p 454.

196 ORIGINAL ARTICLES.

have made it clear that such a scheme will be most likely to approach
the truth, when its basis is laid in a thorough knowledge of the nature
and extent of those variations which every chief modification of this
type shows itself so peculiarly disposed to exhibit, and when in building
it up the idea of natural affinity is accepted as expressing not only degree
of mutual conformity, but actual relationship arising from community of
descent more or less remote. For the endless gradational departures
from any types which we may assume as fixed, and the occurrence of
links of connexion between such as present the best marked differenti-
ations, seem to me to point unmistakeably to this as the only escape from
that difficulty of indefinite multiplication, which attends the application
of the doctrine of distinct specific creations to a group in which scarcely
any two individuals are alike.

The present aspect of this inquiry, in fact, may be not inappro-
priately compared with that of the oft-debated question as to the Races
of Mankind. In the one case, as in the other, the direct evidence of
descent affords cogent evidence as to the possible extent of modification
within the limits of particular races ; and when that evidence is brought
into relation with analogous facts in regard to the yet greater variations
of which we have direct evidence in the case of domesticated animals, it
points to conclusions of higher generality, which physiologists find no
difficulty in accepting. Now the modifications which any single type
of Foraminifera must have undergone, to give origin to the whole series
of diversified forms now presented by that group, are not greater in
comparison with the modifications of which we have direct evidence, than
are those which the advocate for the specific unity of the human races
has no hesitation in assuming as the probable account of their present
divergence.

This view of the case derives great force from the fact that there is
strong reason to regard a large proportion of the existing Foraminifera
as the direct lineal descendants of those of very ancient geological pe-
riods— a doctrine first advanced by Professor Ehrenberg in regard to a
considerable number of Cretaceous forms, and since fully confirmed and
extended as regards the Tertiary fauna by the admirable researches of
Messrs. Rupert Jones and Parker, as well as by my own comparison
of the recent and fossil types of Orbitolites, Orhiculina, Aheolina, Oper-
culina, and Calcarina; and shown to be applicable also to the Secondary
fauna, as far back as the Triassic system, by the remarkable results of
the investigations of the same gentlemen in regard to a well-preserved
sample of it. Following out, by laborious and extended comparison,
the method of inquiry I have so much insisted on, thejr have found am-
ple evidence that a like range has prevailed through the whole succes-
sion of geological periods to which their researches have extended.
"Our own experience of the wide limits within which any specific group
of the Foraminifera multiply their varietal forms, related by some pe-
culiar conditions of growth and ornamentation, has led us to concur
fully with those who regard nearly every species of Foraminifera as ca-
pable of adapting itself, with endless modifications of form and structure,

CARPENTFE. ON FORAMINIFEEA . 197

to very different habitats in brackish and in salt water ; in the several
zones of shallow, deep, and abyssal seas ; and under every climate, from
the poles to the equator. In arranging our synoptical tables of the Me-
diterranean Phizopoda, recent and fossil, and in comparing their nume-
rous specific and varietal forms one with another, we have not confined
ourselves to our collections from this region, but have necessarily made
comparisons of forms from almost every part of the globe ; from the
Arctic and the Tropic Seas; from the temperate zones of both hemi-
spheres; and from shallow, as well as deep sea-beds. Geologically, also,
we have reviewed the Foraminifera in their manifold aspects, as pre-
sented by the ancient Faunas of the Tertiary, Cretaceous, Oolitic,
Liassic, Triassic, Permian, and Carboniferous times; finding, to our
astonishment, that scarcely any of the species of Foraminifera met with
in the Secondary Hocks have become extinct ; all, indeed, that we have
yet seen have their counterparts in the recent Mediterranean deposits.
This is still more clearly found to be the case with regard to the Chalk
of Maestricht and the Tertiaries"*-1. And the same excellent observers,
in summing up their description of the Foraminifera of the blue clay
met with in the alabaster pits at Chellaston, near Derby, belonging to
the Upper Triassic series, thus express themselves: — "Having thus
pointed out that, judging from these specimens obtained at Chellaston,
the minute Nodosarhm and other Foraminifera of the Triassic period
have continued to exist through the intermediate ages to the present
day, without losing any of their essentially specific features, we will
observe that the JVbdosarue are present in rocks of still greater age than
the Trias, — namely, the Permian and Carboniferous, and probably even
the lower Silurian. Nodosarice and Dentalina abound in seme of the
Permian limestones of Durham and the Wetterau, in company with Tex-
tiilarice. Nodosaria occurs also in the Carboniferous limestone of Ire-
land, according to M' Coy; and the green sand of the lower Silurian
series, near St. Petersburg, has yielded to Ehrenberg casts of chambers
something like those of Dentalina, together with unmistakeable casts of
Testularian and Eotalian shells. We may remark, too, that the Fusu-
lina of the Russian, North American, and Arctic Mountain-limestone
carries back the pedigree of the Nonionina group to the Palaeozoic pe-
riods; and that it is accompanied with other Foraminifera of known
types, amongst which Nummulina is not absent. This last-named type
has rare representatives in the Lias and Oolite ; it acquired great po-
tency in the Tertiary seas, and is not extinct now. Altogether we have
here some remarkable instances of the persistency of life-types among
the lower animals. Though the specific relations of the Palaeozoic Fo-
raminifera require further elucidation, we feel certain that the six ge-
nera, represented in this Upper Triassic clay of Chellaston by about

* " On the Rhizopodal Fauna of the Mediterranean, compared with that of the Ita-
lian and some other Tertiary Deposits," in the Quarterly Journal of the Geological So-
ciety for August, 18G0, p. 294.

198 ORIGINAL ARTICLES-.

thirty varieties, stand really in the place of ancestral representatives of
certain existing Foraminifera, that they pnt on their several snbspecific
features in accordance with the conditions of their place of growth, just
as their posterity now do ; and that although we have in this instance
met with only the minute forms of a 700-fathoms mud-bottom, yet else-
where the contemporaneous fuller development of these specific types
may be found by careful search in other and shallower deposits of the
Trias period"*.

It can scarcely, I think, be questioned that such a continuity of the
leading types of Foraminifera maintained through so long a series of
geological periods, and the recurrence of similar varietal departures from
those types, is a result of the facility with which creatures of such low
and indefinite organization adapt themselves to a great variety of exter-
nal conditions ; so that, on the one hand, they pass unharmed through
changes in those conditions which are fatal to beings of higher struc-
ture and more specialized constitution; whilst on the other, they undergo
such modifications, under the influence of those changes, as may pro-
duce a very wide departure from the original type.

Thus we have found strong reason for regarding temperature as
exerting a most important influence in favouring, not merely increase
of size, but specialization of development ; all the most complicated and
specialized forms at present known being natives either of tropical or of
sub-tropical seas, and many of these being represented in the seas of
colder regions by comparatively insignificant examples, which there seems
adequate reason for regarding as of the same specific types with the
tropical forms, even though deficient in some of their apparently most
important features. The depth of the sea-bottom seems also to affect
the prevalence of particular types, and to modify the forms under which
they present themselves ; so that Messrs. Jones and Parker feel them-
selves able to pronounce approximately as to the depth of water at
which a deposit of fossil Foraminifera may have been formed, by a com-
parison of its specific and varietal types with those characterizing various
depths at the present time. And it is specially worthy of note, that in
the greatest depths of the ocean from which Foraminifera have been
brought by deep-sea soundings, these belong almost exclusively to one
type, Globigerina.

Now it may be at once conceded that no other group in the Animal
kingdom affords any thing like the same evidence, on the one hand, of
the derivation of a vast multitude of distinguishable forms from a few
primitive types, and on the other, of the continuity of those types
through a vast succession of geological epochs. A somewhat parallel
case, however, as regards the first of these points, is presented by certain
of the humbler groups of the Vegetable kingdom, in which it is becoming
more and more apparent, from the careful study of their life-history, not

* "On some Fossil Foraminifera from Chellaston, near Derby," in the Quarterly
Journal of the Geological Society for November, 1860, p. 458.

CAKPENTER ON FORAMINIFERA. 199

only that their range of variation is extremely wide, but that a large
number of reputed genera and species have been erected upon no better
foundation than that afforded by the transitory phases of types, hitherto
known only in their states of more advanced development.*

But it would be very unreasonable to put aside these cases as so far
exceptional, that no inferences founded upon them can have any appli-
cation to the higher forms of animal and vegetable life. For it is only
in the degree of their range of variation, that Foraminifera and Proto-
phyta differ from Vertebrata and Phanerogamia ; and the main principle
which must be taken as the basis of the systematic arrangement of the
former groups, — that of ascertaining the range of variation by an ex-
tensive comparison of individual forms, — is one which finds its applica-
tion in every department of Natural History, and is now recognized and
acted on by all the most eminent botanists and zoologists. It will be
sufficient for me here to refer to the views recently advanced by Dr. J.
D. Hooker, in his introduction to the Flora of Australia ; the results of
his extensive experience in the comparison of the Floras of different por-
tions of the globe having led him to conclusions regarding the probable
origin of the diversities they present, with which my own deductions
from the study of the Foraminifera are in complete accordance. And I
am authorized by Mr. T. Davidson, whose profound knowledge of the
Brachiopoda enables him to speak as the highest authority upon all that
relates to that most interesting group (which, like that of Foraminifera,
is traceable through the entire series of fossiliferous rocks) to state that in
proportion to the increase of his knowledge of its modifications of type, does
he find reason to regard many of them as possessing so wide a range of va-
riation, that he feels j ustified in making a large reduction in the number
of specific types hitherto accounted distinct ; whilst in the same propor-
tion he finds himself able to trace with considerable probability the same
specific types through a succession of geological periods, — certain Oolitic
Terebratulida, for example, being the probable ancestors of existing
forms; and even the Lingula of the Wenlock Silurian being specifically
undistinguishable from the Lingula anatena of our present seas.

The following are the general propositions, which it appears to me
justifiable to base on the researches of which I now give a resume : —

I. The range of variation is so great among Foraminifera, as to
include not merely the differential characters which systematists pro-
ceeding upon the ordinary methods have accounted specific, but also
those upon which the greater part of the genera of this group have been
founded, and even in some instances those of its orders.

II. The ordinary notion of species, -as assemblages of individuals
marked out from each other by definite characters that have been gene-
tically transmitted from original prototypes similarly distinguished, is

* See especially on this subject the valuable researches of Dr. J. Braxton Hicks, " On
the Development of the Gonidia of Lichens, in relation to the Unicellular Algse," in Quart.
Journ. of Micr. Science, October, 1860, and January, 1861.

200 ORIGINAL ARTICLES.

quite inapplicable to this group ; since even if the limits of such assem-
blages were extended so as to include what would elsewhere be accounted
genera, they would still be found so intimately connected by gradational
links, that definite lines of demarcation could not be drawn between
them.

III. The only natural classification of the vast aggregate of diver-
sified forms which this group contains, will be one which ranges them
according to their mode and degree of divergence from a small number
of principal family types ; and any subordinate groupings of genera and
species which may be adopted for the convenience of description and
nomenclature, must be regarded merely as assemblages characterized by
the nature and degree of the modifications of the original type which
they may have respectively acquired in the course of genetic descent
from a common ancestry.

IV. Even in regard to these family types, it may be fairly ques-
tioned whether analogical evidence does not rather favour the idea of
their derivation from a common original, than that of their primitive dis-
tinctness.

V. The evidence in regard to the genetic continuity of the Forami-
nifera of successive geological periods and of those of the later of these
and the existing inhabitants of our seas, is as complete as the nature of
the case admits.

VI. There is no evidence of any fundamental modification or advance
in the Foraminiferous type from the Palaeozoic period to the present time.
The most marked transition appears to have taken place between the
Cretaceous period, whose Foraminiferous Fauna seems to have been
chiefly composed of smaller and simpler types, and the commencement of
the Tertiary, of which one of the earliest members was the JNuminulitic
limestone, which forms a stratum of enormous thickness, that ranges over
wide areas in Europe, Asia, and America, and is chiefly composed of the
largest and most specialized forms of the entire group. But these were
not unrepresented in previous epochs ; and their extraordinary develop-
ment may have been simply due to the prevalence of conditions that
specially favoured it. The Foraminiferous Fauna of our own seas pro-
bably presents a greater range of variety than existed at any preceding
period ; but there is no indication of any tendency to elevation towards
a higher type.

VII. The general principles thus educed from the study of the
Foraminifera should be followed in the investigation of the systematic
affinities of each of those great types of animal and vegetable form,
which is marked out by its physiological distinctness from the rest.
In every one of these there is ample evidence of variability ; and the
limits of that variability have to be determined by a far more extended
comparison than has been usually thought necessary, before the real
relations of their different forms can be even approximately deter-
mined.

VIII. As it is the aim of the physical philosopher to determine

ROLLESTOX ON THE BRAIN OF THE ORANG TJTANG. 201

" what are the fewest and simplest assumptions, which being granted,
the whole existing order of nature would result,"* so the aim of the
philosophic naturalist should be to determine how small a number of
primitive types may be reasonably supposed to have given origin, by the
ordinary course of "descent with modification, " to the vast multitude
of diversified forms that have peopled the globe in the long succession
of geological ages, and constitute its present Fauna and Flora.

XX. — Ox the Affinities of the Brain of the Orang Utang. By
George Eolleston, IT. D., F. L. S., Linacre Professor of Anatomy.

As an opportunity has quite lately been afforded me of dissecting an
Orang Utang, and as the University Museum possesses a considerable
number of preparations which illustrate "the Zoological Relations of
Man with the Lower Animals," it is less presumptuous in me than it
otherwise would have been, to write upon a subject which has met with
such able, as well as such recent, handling in the pages of this Journal.
The great attention which the Paper to which I allude has attracted,
renders it unnecessary for me either to recapitulate the views it pro-
pounds, or to specify in detail the points in which I agree, or those in
which I feel myself compelled to differ, with the writer of it, whose au-
thority I should be little likely needlessly to dispute.

In this Paper it will be with Human rather than with Simious
Brains that I shall contrast and compare the Brain of the Orang Utang ;
incidentally, however, I shall institute comparisons between the Brain
of the Asiatic Ape, and that of the smaller of the two most anthropoid
African Apes, the Chimpanzee.

Tiedemann and Buffon exemplify, respectively, the two most oppo-
site views which it is possible to entertain as to the questions of the
actual anatomical truth, on the one hand, and of the possible anthropo-
logical bearings of the former of these two comparisons, on the other.
Buffon, writing in 1766, speaks of the Brain of the Orang in much the
same language as Tyson, in his "Anatomy of a Pygmie," had more
than sixty years previously, applied to the Brain of the Chimpanzee.
Between these Brains and that of Man there was, according to these
writers, actually no difference at all — "Le Cerveauf est absolument de
la meme forme et de la meme proportion." And the doctrine of the
immateriality of the soul was, in the estimation of these authors, not
merely compatible with, but a corollary of, these not wholly correct
anatomical premises. Though the Brain in each is the same — in the
one the power of thought exists, in the other it is absent. Thought,

* Mill's Lo^ic, 3rd ed., vol. i., p. 327.
f Histoire Xaturelle, torn xiv., p. 61. Paris, 1766.
VOL. I. N. H. JR. 2D

202 ORIGINAL ARTICLES.

therefore, cannot be a product of the Material Organism — " II ne pense
pas — y a-t-il une preuve plus evidente que la matiere seule, quoique par-
faitement organisee, ne peut produire, ni la pensee, ni la parole qui en
est la signe, a moins qu' ellene soit animee par un principe superieur ?"

The modern Idealist may avoid his predecessors' anatomical errors ;
but, if he be true to his principles, he will feel no anxiety to repudiate
their metaphysics. He may make his strong position yet stronger, we
believe, by adducing biological evidence in disproof of the usually
granted assumption, that mental capacity stands always in a certain re-
lation to cerebral development ; but holding, as he does, the existence
of an essential difference between mind and matter, he makes himself
but a materialist for the nonce, if he express any repugnance to such
statements as those just quoted on account of any conclusions to which
they could lead Mm. For even if they were wholly, as we believe they
are nearly, true to the facts, he could draw from them, if he remained
true to his principles, no other conclusions than did Buffon and Tyson.

Reasoners of the kind to which we allude will do well to imitate the
logical consistency of the materialistic author of the " Icones Cerebri
Simiarum." Tiedemann, at all events, had no half-hearted faith in his
creed. He plights his faith to the scalpel and callipers, and betrays no
anxiety as to any possible upsetting of his conclusion by such data as
consciousness or the history of psychical phenomena could furnish —
" Parvus*4 ergo encephalus Orang IJtangi rationem physicum et certam
prodit ubi jam celeberrimus Soemerring monuit cur animi facultatibus
tantopere ab homine distet. In homine prsevalere cerebrum summum-
que hominis bonum rationis usum, ab ipsa maxima encephali evolutione
pendere haud dubitari potest. Praecipua et essentialis ergo differentia
quae ipsum hominem et reliqua animantia intercedit in cerebro posita
est."

Having indicated our opinion that the dealing with such views as
those just quoted from Tiedemann's thirty-second Corollary is to be safely,
though by no means of necessity, delegated to the metaphysician, we
may proceed forthwith to lay before the reader the anatomical details
which will enable him to decide for himself, whether the Heidelberg
anatomist, or the French natural historian, was the nearer the truth in a
matter of fact.

Multitudinous as are the differences which a detailed comparison of
any two brains will disclose, they yet admit of being arranged under
four heads. Under the first of these heads we may class those differences,
which the observant anatomical eye would detect without the assistance
of any anatomical instrument, and could express without being necessi-
tated to employ any technical anatomical language.

Our second class of differences comprehends such as the scales and
the callipers reveal.

For the power of describing, and one might almost say, for the

* Icones, Cor. xxxii , p. 54.

ROLLESTON ON THE BKAIN OF THE ORANG UTAXG. 203

power of discovering the third class of differences, we are indebted to
M. Gratiolet's masterly analysis of the cerebral convolutions. Pre-
viously to the appearance of the "Memoirc but les Plis Cerebraux de
1' homnie et des Primates," it was all but impossible to express in words
the differences which the eye detected in the arrangement in two dif-
ferent brains of what has been called "the chaos of the convolutions."
What was previously all but an impossibility, M. Gratiolet's philosophy
has made an easy task. No apology can be necessary for adopting his
phraseology, as the right of naming the country he has conquered, is a
prerogative never denied to one, who has succeeded in subduing a terri-
tory which few before him had even thought of invading.

Under our fourth head we shall arrange those points of difference
which a dissection of the brain alone can reveal.

These four heads correspond, it is obvious, to the successive stages of
an anatomical investigation ; and they possess, consequently, the merit
not merely of colligating conveniently the results, but also of corre-
sponding accurately to the several processes of an accurate anatomical
investigation.

The orang dissected was a young male {Si mi a Morio). The first two
molars had just come into use in both jaws; the weight of the entire
body was but 16 lbs. 12 oz. ; the height was 2 feet 7 inches. None of the
internal viscera presented any appearance of disease. The lungs, which
were both but unilobar, were crepitant throughout, free from conges-
tion, collapse, or tubercle. The callosities on the backs of the fingers,
which have been held, and with some show of probability, to indicate
the existence of a state of debility, were absent.

The roof of the cranium was removed by a circular incision, inter-
secting the foramen magnum posteriorly. Before the removal of the
dura mater, the cerebral hemispheres were seen to cover the superior
surface of the cerebellum entirely, and even to project a very little way
beyond it, posteriorly. After the removal of the dura mater, a small
segment of cerebellar surface became visible on each side, posteriorly to
the tips of the occipital lobes. It is well known* that the anteropos-
terior dimensions of the corpus callosum are very different in a brain
whilst contained and supported within its case, and when removed from
the skull, — the forward swaying of the hemispheres upon their support-
ing stems, the crura, flattening the previously arched commissure. That
it was the weight of the hemispheres, working similarly, which produced
the alteration just noted in the relations of the cerebrum to the cere-
bellum was seen thus A wider segment of cerebellar surface ivas visible

on the left side than on the right, the anifnal lying over towards its right
side.

* "Bei der Messung der Lange des Balkens muss man wohl im Auge behalten dass man
ihn Misstso lange die Hemispbaren ihre Lage noch in Schadel haben ; am herausgenom-
menen Gehirn dehnt er sich sebr betractlich in die Lange aus und veriiert seine "Wol-
bung." Huscbke. Schaedel, Him und Seele, p. 110.

204 OEIGINAL AKTICLES.

The greater width of the semilunar segment exposed on the left side
was, no doubt, owing to the gravitation of the cerebral lobes, but the
greatest width of this segment was only three lines. The relations thus de-
scribed are well shown in PL iii., fig. 3. The view of the base of the brain,
as given in fig. 2, will enable us to complete our observations as to the
relations of the cerebellum to the posterior lobes of the cerebrum. On
looking at that figure, it will be seen that no cerebral surface comes into
view on the outside of the lateral boundaries of the cerebellum. In a
view of the base of the human brain, some cerebral substance is invariably
seen in this situation; but the same is the case with a second orang's brain,
with a chimpanzee's brain, and with the brains of several Cercopitheci}
and an Inuns, in the Series belonging to the Christ Church Museum. The
cerebellum does not project so far laterally as to cover the cerebral lobes
in a basal view of any brain in Tiedemann's Icones which is above the
rank of the Lemuridce. Two figures'" of the brain of the Gibbon given by
M. Sandifort, which present a relation of the cerebral lobes to the cerebel-
lum, much resembling that which I have described in the brain of the first
of the two orangs in our museum, M. Gratiolet regards with suspicion,
whilst he himself records the existence! of a similar relation of the two
parts of the encephalon in the gorilla. M. Gratiolet gives the figure of the
brain of the chimpanzee as drawn by Tyson, only to express a strong
opinion as to its worthlessness ; and as he condemns it, as well as the two
figures of M. Sandifort, on grounds quite independent of the view they
give of the cerebellum and its relations, we may, perhaps, be justified
in disregarding any evidence which might be based upon these three
figures, and in considering the condition and relation of the parts in the
subject of this paper as an individual, rather than a specific, peculiarity.
The roof-like exterior of the skull of the gorilla would prepare us for
meeting with quite another relation of cerebellum and cerebrum than that
which we find in the subglobular skulls of the smaller anthropoid apes.
For, though the transverse diameter in these latter skulls taken from one
parietal protuberance, or rather from one spot homologous with such
protuberance to the other, is only subequal to the transverse diameter,
as taken from one supramastoid region to the other, it is yet never
markedly inferior, as is the case with the gorilla, to a degree for which
no development of mastoidal air-cells can account.

The evidence, then, for the lateral predominance of the cerebellar
lobes rests upon the single instance, the subject of this paper, and upon
the three representations which M. Gratiolet sees, upon other grounds,
good cause for condemning. Against it, is to be set the evidence based
upon the examination of several other simious brains as above specified,
upon the unanimous assent of every one of the plates given by M.
Gratiolet in his Memoire sur des Plis Cerebraux, and upon Tiedemann's

* Gratiolet, Memoire sur les Plis Cerebraux. Planche iv., fig. 1 and 2.
| Comptes Rendus, Avril, 1860, p. 803.

KOLLESTOX ON THE BRAIN OF THE 0KANG UTANG. 205

figures of the brains of the Simia Rhesus, Simla Nemestrina, Simia
Sabceus, and Cebus Capucinus. If the weight of this latter mass of
evidence is not sufficient to make us consider the relations of the parts
as seen in our specimen, fig. 2, as mere individual peculiarities, it is at
all events sufficient to justify us in denying them, not merely all classi-
ficatory, bat also all physiological value.

For arrogating importance to any projection or predominance back-
ward of the cerebellum, still less justification exists. For so doing no
other colour can be brought forward than such as our own figures can
afford, for which we have adduced a sufficient explanation — or such as
certain confessedly imperfect figures,* taken as they were from a con-
fessedly badly preserved brain, may be thought to furnish, when weighed
against the all but unanimous verdict to the contrary, which is obtained by
the examination of authentic representations, and of well-preserved speci-
mens. In every specimen, save the single one the subject of this pa-
per, of a simious brain above the grade of a lemur, contained in our
Museum, the cerebellum is as much covered posteriorly by the cerebral
lobes as we have already shown it to be laterally. The same remarks
apply to every one of M. Gratiolet's own figures j the only exceptions to
the rule which his plates offer being those which the imperfect figures of
Tyson and Sandifort furnish. Tiedemann's Icones of the lower apes are
unanimous on the same side, but the figures which he gives of the brains
of the orang and chimpanzee, in his work on the Brain of the Negro, f
represent the cerebellum uncovered, on both sides, to a somewhat
greater extent than it is in our figures 3 and 4, on one sidej.

A careful study, however, of our figures, coupled with an examina-
tion of the skulls of several anthropoid apes, will lead to the belief that
the cerebral hemispheres of the apes bulge less laterally than do those of
man ; that they are not merely more boat-shaped, and tapering anteriorly
and posteriorly, but that they are more wall-sided, and less protuberant
laterally.

Though we may be inclined to consider the diminution in lateral
expanse, and in backward growth of the posterior lobes, D, of which

* Schrceder van der Kolk et Vrolik, citt. Gratiolet, Mem. p. 49, Planch vi. 5 and 6.

f Citt. ap. "Wagner's Icones Zootomies Taf. viii., figs. 2 and 3.

j Since the above paragraphs were -written, casts have been taken of the interior of the
skulls of our second orang and of the chimpanzee with the following results. The cast of
the orang's skull approximates more nearly to the proportions of the brain we have figured
than does the prepared brain it represents ; the relative extent of the space occupied by the
mass corresponding to the cerebellum, being somewhat greater than that occupied by the
cerebellum itself, in the specimen. Still, in such a view of the cast as that given in fig. 3 of
the first of our brains, no cerebellar surface at all comes into view ; though a little less
cerebral surface comes out laterally than in the preserved brain in a similar view to that
in fig. 2. The cast of the chimpanzee's skull represents the cerebral hemispheres as
overlapping the cerebellum to a greater extent, posteriorly, than they do in the prepara-
tion, the hemispheres having in this, as in certain figured preparations, fallen apart late-
rally somewhat, and lost thus in antero- posterior, what they have gained in lateral, extent.

206 OKIGINAL ARTICLES.

our figures speak, as an individual rather than as a specific pecu-
liarity, we are compelled to assign greater importance to the curtail-
ment in downward growth to which they, as well as other similar
figures, testify. A line drawn along the edge of the cerebral hemisphere
in Fig. 1, where that hemisphere overlies the cerebellum, will be seen
to be much less nearly horizontal than a line is which holds the same re-
lation in a human brain. It seems as if the cerebellum had encroached
upon the cerebral lobes which roofed it over.

The same figure shows that a similar stunting has befallen the up-
ward growth of both the frontal and posterior lobes, a line bounding
the superior edge of the hemispheres from D forwards to A, describing
a much more even curve than is usual in man.

Less ambiguously does the vertical direction of the fissures of Sylvius,
F, and of the convolution 6, 6, 6' j parallel with, and immediately below
the lower lip, 7, 7, 7, of that fissure, speak of diminished relative an-
teroposterior growth of the frontal lobes.

The greater relative thickness of the nerves is well seen in Fig. 2.

These nine points of greater or less discrepancy between the human
and the Simious brain may be arranged under our first head : they con-
sist, in the ape, of diminution in downward, lateral, upward, and antero-
posterior growth, first, of the posterior ; secondly, of the frontal lobes ;
and to these, based on consideration of diminution, we have to add the
ninth, based upon a consideration of increase, that, viz., of the size
of the nerves. What is the value of these points as differentiating
characteristics? Two canons may be laid down, to assist us in estimat-
ing the value of such characteristics as means for settling the relative
rank of rival organisms. The first of these may be thus expressed: — If
certain structures, or certain relations of certain structures, are found to
exist in animals confessedly lower in the scale of life than those which
are the subjects of comparison, the presence of such structures, or of such
relations of structures, cannot by itself he held to be a mark of serial ele-
vation. Cumulatively it may have weight, absolutely it can have none.
The second canon is but a converse of the first ; and, expressed in similar
language, it may run thus: — If certain structures, or certain relations of
certain structures, are found to exist in animals confessedly higher in
the scale of life than those which are the subjects of comparison, such
structures, or such relations of such structures, cannot by themselves be
held to be marks of serial degradation. Cumulatively, they may be of
weight ; absolutely, they are not. These canons have been, perhaps
necessarily, expressed in complex language; in themselves, however,
they are sufficiently simple and self-evident, and, being so, are compati-
ble with either view of the origin of species.

The first of these canons we have already applied, in our comparison
of the overlapped cerebellum of the lower monkeys with the partially
unoverlapped cerebellum of our orang. The even curve described by
the boundary line of the superior surfaces of the Irishwoman's brain, as
given by M. Gratiolet in the first plate appended to his often-quoted
work, and the anteriorly and posteriorly tapering ends of the hemi-

ROLLESTON ON THE BRAIN OF THE OR1NG TTTANG. 207

spheres there figured, enables us to apply the second canon to the several
marks of degradation spoken of, as diminution of upward and of lateral
growth in the frontal and the occipital lobes. The even regular curve,*
indeed, of the skull, and its narrowing tapering frontal and occipital
regions, as seen in the lower races, would have led us to anticipate
some such cerebral conformation as the unhappily all but unique speci-
men of such a brain as the one just referred to actually discloses to us.

The foramina for the nerves in the skulls of the lower races of
mankind have been said by certain ethnologists to present larger dia-
meters than the similar foramina in the basis of the skull of higher
races ; and if this be really the case, our first canon will come to apply
to our ninth point of difference, the larger relative size, namely, of the
nerves in the simious brain.

The three points of diminution in downward development of the
posterior lobes, and in both downward and in antero-posterior develop-
ment of the frontal, remain unaffected by the application of either canon.
Of their value our figures will enable the reader to judge for himself.

After comparing our single brain of the chimpanzee with the two
of the orang we possess in our Museum, we cannot see that the African
ape contrasts in any one of these nine points to disadvantage with the
Asiatic.

Under our second head — that, namely, of the differences which
weighing and measuring enable us to enucleate as existing between the
several subjects of our comparison — we have eight points of difference
to enumerate. When it is not otherwise specified, the measurements of
the human brain were taken from a brain of a German of average in-
telligence, the brain having recently been brought to the museum and
presenting nothing peculiar, in the way either of under or of over de-
velopment, to render it unfit to serve as a standard of comparison to the
brain of the orang. Both sets of measurements were taken at the same
time.

The entire weight of the orang's body being 161b. 12 oz., the
weight of the brain was 12 oz. The relation of the weight of the brain
to that of the body was, therefore, as 1 : 22.3.

I find recorded by Huschkef a set of observations analogous to these.
They were made upon a child of six years of age. The child was a
girl, dying emaciated of pleuro-bronchitis —

Weight of body, .... 13,377 grammes or ca 291b.
Weight of brain, . . . 1 21 5 grammes or ca 21b. 10 oz.

The brain : the body =1:11.

* Hunterian Osteological Catalogue, 5346, 5755. See, also, Symbolik der Men-
schlichen Gestalt., von. C. G. Carus, p. 170, fig. 34.
t Schaedal Him und Seele. 1854, p. 112.

208 OBIGINAL AETICLES.

The state of emaciation in which this child is reported to have died
makes it the fairer to take it as a standard in this comparison. The
child's dentition may very well have been in the same state as that of our
orang ; its age, however, was in all likelihood much further advanced ;
but as the brain would have been growing rapidly during those years,
whilst the weight of the body was not increased proportionally, the
excess of years may not in reality have caused in this case any dimi-
nution in the relative disproportion of the child's brain to its body, as
it does in cases of healthy development.

On the other hand, we must recollect that the proportion subsisting
between the adult brain in man and the body has been put as low as
1 : 50 ;* and that though this proportion is lower by as much as 15
than most authorities would rate it, some such disproportion must have
prevailed in those cases in which the brain of an adult Negro is recorded
as reaching no greater weight than 753 grammesf or 1 lb. 10.59 oz.

The weight of the body of a nearly adult female chimpanzee is
given by Professors Sharpey and Ellis, on the authority of Professor
Owen, as 61 lb. The relation of weight between such a body and the
brain of our orang which weighed 12 oz. would be 1 : 8 1.3. J

Let us suppose that the Negro, the weight of whose brain, as given
byTiedemann, amounted to no more than 26 oz., weighed altogether as
much as 8 stone, or 1792 oz. The proportion between his brain's weight
and his body's would then have stood as 1 : 68.9, as against a propor-
tion taken between analogous weights in the apes of 1 : 81.3. It will
be seen from this that the absolute weight of the human brain is a more
sharply differentiating characteristic than is its relative weight.

It will be convenient to give the following measurements and their
mutual relations in a tabular form, using, for the sake of economy of
space, the letters of the alphabet to denote each particular measure-
ment : —

a. The length from the root of the olfactory nerve to the anterior
extremity of the brain.

b. The length from the point of the middle lobe to the posterior
extremity of the brain.

c. The length of the cerebellum.

d. The breadth of the cerebellum.

e. Length of cerebral hemispheres.
/. Length of corpus callosum.

In Orang = If inch. : 2| inch. = 1 : 1-64.

b I In Man = 2£ inch. : 5£ inch. = 1 : 1-95.

In Chimpanzee§ = 44 mm. : 69 mm. =1 : 1/56.

* Huschke, 1. c, p. 60.

f Tiedemann, citt. Huschke, p. 73.

t Quain's Anatomy, bv Sharpey and Elite, vol. ii., 433, note. 18o6.

§ Schrceder van der Kolk et Vrolik, citt. Nat. Hist. Review, No. I., p. 80.

ROLLESTON ON THE BRAIN OF THE ORANO UTi.NO.

209

Iu Orang = 1^ inch. : 3 inch. = 1 : 2-40.

In Man = lj inch. : 41 inch. = 1 : 275.

In Chimpanzee* = 15-5'" : 325'" = 0"48 : 1.

In Orang = 4^ inch. : 1|. inch. = 1 : 944.

/ { In Man = 6 - 7 in. : 3 - 4 in. = 1 : 0-50, or 1 : 0 42.

In Chimpanzeef = 99 mil. : 43 mil. = 1 : 043.

The following six measurements of height, breadth, and length of
the human cerebral hemispheres, are the three maximum and the three
minimum measurements given by Husche, at the ninety-ninth page of
his work, already referred to.

Maximum height in Chinese = 155 mil.
,, breadth in Inca = 1733 ,,
„ length iu Croat =200 „

Minimum in Hiudoo Fakir =124 mil.
„ Croat = 103 „

Inca =151 „

From these measurements, it is evident that the variations of height
oscillate within narrower limits in the human brain than the variations
either of length or of breadth. The measurement of height, therefore,
would seem to possess greater serial importance than either of the other
two measurements. Yet the following measurements will show that it
is precisely in this dimension that the brain of the apes stands in the
greatest relative inferiority to that of man.

Length of hemispheres in Orang : length in Man
„ Chimpanzee : ,,

4^ in.

99 in.

Breadth of ditto in Orang
,, Chimpanzee

breadth in Man = 3^ in.
,, = 95 m.%

= 87m.§

6-7in. = 1
6- 7 in. = 1

4-7 in. = 1
4-7m. = 1
4-7m. = 1

1-4 or 1

1-54 or 1

1-64.
1-79.

1-23 or 1 : 215.
1-08 or 1 : 1-88.
1-17 or 1 : 2-06.

Height of ditto in Orang : height in Man = 2^ in. : 5 = 1 : 2*35.

„ Chimpanzee : ,, = 54m. J : 5 = 1 : 2*38.

= 64m.§:5 =1-2.

Of all the differences of measurements and their relations as yet ad-
duced, the difference between the relative heights of the human and the
simious brains seems the most important.

Small as the difference in the two measurements of corpora callosa
may seem, we must yet record that posteriorly to the posterior bourrelet
or rounded edge of that body in the orang, the corpora quadrigemina
came into view when the brain was removed from the skull. This ob-
servation will be seen later to have, when coupled with certain others,
considerable value, as showing the greater relative shortness of the cor-
pus callosum. It was noticeable that the anterior pair of corpora quadri-
gemina were less sharply marked off from the posterior than in man.

The central notch of the cerebellum was much shallower relatively

* Schrceder van der Kolk ? citt. Huschke, 1 c,
X Schroedev van der Kolk ap. Huschke, p. 129.
VOL. I. — N. H. R. 2 E

p. 82.

f Idem, Ibid., p. 129.

§ Gratiolet, Memoire, p. 54.

210 ORIGINAL ARTICLES.

than in man, a point to be recollected in connexion with the relations
stated to exist between the transverse d and antero-posterior diameters
c, of the cerebellum.

It is under our third head, that, namely, of the differences which M.
Gratiolet's work has enabled us to describe, and we might almost say to
discover, that the most important points of our comparison will be found.
Under this head will fall the points which were mentioned in the last
number* of this Journal, as the second and third points of difference,
absolutely distinguishing the brain of man from that of the ape ; and
under it also may be ranged those which M. Gratioletf lays stress upon,
as indicating a relative inferiority in the African to the Asiatic ape.

To begin with " the external perpendicular fissure." This fissure or
a part of it is visible in Fig. i., below a ; in Fig iii., between a and a. It
is well represented in most of the simious brains figured by M. Gratiolet;
it may be seen in Fig. i., Fig. ii., Fig. iii., Fig. vi., at/, in Tab. i. of
Tiedemann's Icones of the brain of the Simia Nemestrina, Simia Rhesus,
Simia sabcea, and Cebus capucinus. It will be seen a little later that it
is not beside the purpose to remark that it may also be better seen in
Tiedemann's^ figure of the brain of an Orang on one side than it is on
either side of his representation of the brain of a Chimpanzee ; and that
it is very well- marked on both sides, in a drawing of a brain of a young
orang given by Professor Wagner, in a work§ written with express and
constant reference to M. Gratiolet's labours. Lastly, this fissure is very
well seen in the representation of the brain of the Chimpanzee given
by Professor Owen in his paper in the Linnaean Society's Proceedings,
Jan. 21, 1857, Fig. iv., p. 19, and in his Reade Lecture, Fig. vii., p. 25.

The inward prolongation of this fissure is never filled up, see 16, Fig.
iv. It is upon the degree to which its outward prolongation is filled up
or not filled up, bridged or not bridged over, that the absence or pre-
sence of an external perpendicular figure, the existence or non-existence
of an "operculum," depends.

In the figures referred to, and to some extent in those appended to
this paper, the anterior edge of the occipital lobes is seen to rise wave-like
as it were against the table-land of the fronto-parietal lobes. The wave-
like edge is the "operculum." Along the middle line on each in Fig.
i., Fig. iii., and Fig. iv., the wave-like edge, speaking of disruption of
continuity between the occipital lobes and the mass of brain anterior to
them, is absent ; a convolution, a, a, passes across what would else be a
chasm. This convolution is the " premier pli de passage" of Gratiolet ;
it comes according to that authority thus to the surface, and thus bridges
the chasm in Man, in the Orang, and in the Ateles, but in no other ape.
Our first canon can be immediately applied in the estimation of the value

* Nat. Hist. Rev., i., p. 83. f Memoire, pp. 51, 62.

% Tiedemann ap. Wagner, Icones Zoot., Taf. viii., figs. 2 and 3.
§ Vorstudien zu einer Wissenschaftliehen Morphologie und Physiologie des Mensch-
lichen Gehirns als Seolenorgan. Von Rudolph Wagner. Gottingen. 1860.

R0LLEST0N ON THE BRAIN OF THE ORANG TJTANG. 211

of this structure upon the data thus pat before the reader upon the au-
thority of M. Gratiolet. Leaving the task of so applying it to the reader,
I shall proceed to show that the superficial position of this bridging con-
volution is by no means an universally present characteristic either of
the human brain, or of the Orangs ; and, thirdly, that it is sometimes
both present and superficially visible in the brain of the Chimpanzee.

Of seven human brains at present in the University Museum, three
possess this bridging convolution on both sides entirely superficial in
position ; in the fourth vre find it wanting on one side, two spurs thrown
out from the declivity of the occipital representing what is a perfectly
continuous chain on the other side ; in the fifth it is concealed on one
side by the overhanging edge of the occipital lobes ; in the sixth it does
not quite reach, on the left side, the level held by the occipital and pa-
rietal lobes which it connects ; in the seventh, a deep chasm is visible
on both sides ; but on the left the convolution, which seems to fail to
bridge the fissure, does really cross it and fill it up, though at a distance
of as much as an inch from the longitudinal fissure ; whilst on the
right side the connecting convolution dips vertically downward, and
leaves a deep valley between the occipital and parietal lobes. This
seventh brain belonged to a man who, by trade a gardener, was pos-
sessed of more than an average share of intelligence, and whose brain
was carefully preserved for this reason, as well as on account of its great
size, and the development of its convolutions. This last of the seven
brains will allow us to apply our second canon to test the value of the
absence of this structure in the particular relation of superficial position
as a mark of serial degradation.

But a structure which exhibits so much variability, as to conform to
the rule in but three, and to diverge more or less from it in four, out
of seven brains chosen at haphazard for examination, as being all at that
moment which a particular museum contained, will scarcely seem to
merit a high place as a zoological differentia. With reference to the
" premier Pli de Passage" in the orang, a careful comparison of the re-
lations of the parts lettered aa, in fig. 3, with the same relations in
fig. 4, will show that this convolution is by no means superficial in its
entire extent on the left side of that brain. And, secondly, in our second
specimen of an orang' s brain, this convolution is concealed on both sides
within the fissure ; and the cerebral hemispheres in this specimen pre-
sent, in consequence, as perfectly wave-like an opercular edge as in any
other monkey. In confirmation of this, I would appeal to Tiedemann's*
and Wagner' sf figures, already referred to, as giving typical representa-
tions of an external perpendicular fissure in the brain of orang utangs, in
which, according to M. Gratiolet, it should be invariably half- filled up
by his " premier pli de passage."

Lastly, with reference to the chimpanzee : one specimen possesses

* Wagner, Icones Zoot, viii., 3. t Ap. Wagner, Icon., taf. viil., fig. 2.

212 ORIGINAL ARTICLES.

on its'right side a well-marked, superior bridging convolution, coming
for a considerable part of its length nearly or quite to a level with the
lobes it connects. Tiedemann's figure of the chimpanzee's brain leads
us, by its imperfectly-marked operculum, to the same conclusion as its
sharply drawn one did in the case of the orang. The law of correlation
of forms is a safe guide to us, when we have to predict what will be
found in the lower organisms of well-marked families ; it loses its in-
flexibility, and becomes but a leaden rule, when we come to examine the
most perfectly evolved species in such families. In the higher species
of the order, apes, as in the higher varieties of the species, man, we find
variability the rule, uniformity the exception ; in the lower species, as in
the lower varieties of man, the reverse condition obtains. The variabi-
lity which we have seen to exist in the species chimpanzee, is no incon-
siderable proof of its high relative rank in its own order.

But there is a second connecting bridge passing between the occipi-
tal and the parietal lobes. This convolution is invariably present, and
invariably superficially placed in man ; it is as invariably absent in both
the anthropoid apes. In man it is always a large, easily recognizable
structure; and in cases such as those which our fourth human brain may
be taken to exemplify, or exaggerate, it will often be found to send a
branch, as it were, in aid of the weakened superior bridge. The vacuity
which in the apes corresponds to what is invariably a convolution of
importance in man, may be seen in fig. 1, immediately posteriorly to
6 ; and in fig. 3, immediately below a. But this convolution, the
" deuxieme pli de passage" of Gratiolet, absent without exception in
the Old World apes, and present equally invariably in man, is found also
in two New World monkeys, the cebus capucinus* possessing it with-
out, the ateles possessing it in company with its fellow, f

There is yet a third structure — " the Lobule of the Marginal
Convolution" — to be treated of. In man it lies above the upper
end of the fissure of Sylvius ; and it may not unfairly be repre-
sented in our figure 1, by the convolution which lies immediately to
the spectator's left of 5. Of it M. Gratiolet speaks in the following
language : — " Cet lobule est particulier a l'homme et ne se trouve pas \
ni dans l'orang ni dans le chimpanzee." But I find nowhere in M.
Gratiolet' s work any repetition of this striking statement : indeed it loses
a good deal of its force, when we find the qualifying words " souvent
assez grand" applied to this peculiarly anthropic lobule in the sentence
immediately preceding the one we have quoted. And in the coloured
diagrams, which speak so plainly, by their various hues, of the varied
relations in extent and arrangement which may obtain among different
brains, I find no separate colour assigned to this peculiarly separable
lobe — no such distinction is awarded to them as there is to the bridging
"plis de passage;" which, nevertheless, are not asserted to be exclu-

Gratiolet, Memoire, p. 78. f Ibid., p. 76. % Ibid-> P- 60-

ROLLESTON ON THE BRAIN OF THE ORANG T7TANG. 213

sively anthropic. These considerations make me suspect that more
weight has been attached to M. Gratiolet's words, as above quoted, than
he would have wished them himself to carry ; and anatomical investi-
gation seems to me but to strengthen the argument based upon these
literary considerations. For this " lobule of the marginal convolution"
is very frequently asymmetrical on the two sides of the same brain, and
its development in any two human brains taken at haphazard is pretty
sure to present the very greatest differences. Varying, as it does most
widely, in absolute size, it varies also showing "rien* de constant" in
its relation to certain other parts ; its value can hardly be high, there-
fore, as a serial characteristic.

The convolution numbered 4 in Tig. 1 and Fig. 3, the "premier
pli ascendant" of Gratiolet, is separated by a vertical more or less in-
terrupted fissure from the horizontal-lying frontal lobes 2 and 3. Now,
a line drawn down the long axis of this fissure would fall a considerable
way in front of the commencement of the fissure of Sylvius. Such a line
in the human brain falls always far behind the commencement of that
fissure, joining it, indeed, some way behind the angle where the fissure
of Sylvius makes its bend horizontally backwards. The forward position
of this Hue speaks more strongly than can the vertical direction of the
fissure of Sylvius, of stunted antero -posterior growth of the frontal
lobes, and it deserves more attention than it has as yet received.

The convolutions, No. 3, the superior frontal convolutions, are of all
the convolutions those in which by symmetry and simplicity, both
alike sure marks of degradation, the orang's brain contrasts to the
greatest disadvantage with man's. But this fourth and this fifth point we
shall leave to be elucidated by the reader for himself from an examina-
tion of our figures. We will state, however, the details which an
examination of the chimpanzee's brain, instituted with a view of see-
ing whether its convolutions were really more symmetrical and more
simple ^than those of the orang, elicited, in confirmation of !M. Gratiolet's
views.

In the orang, and in the chimpanzee, both the frontal, 1, 2, 3, the
4 and 5 ascending parietal, and the superior bridging convolutions aa,
are asymmetrical on the two sides of the brain. The occipital d, the
temporo- sphenoidal b, and the convolutions b, b, b, named "pli courbe"
by M. Gratiolet, are symmetrical in the chimpanzee, but asymmetrical
in the orang. The occipital lobe is both more simple and more sym-
metrical in the chimpanzee than in the orang, but it is not larger in
size. Both ascending convolutions are a little more simple in the
chimpanzee than in the orang. But the sum total of advantage accruing
to the orang from this comparison is, on M. Gratiolet's own principles,
but slight.

Having arrived at our last head- -that, namely, of such differentiae
as are detectible by dissection only — we will proceed to lay them before

* Memoire, 1. c.

214 ORIGINAL ARTICLES.

the reader in the shape of a short account of the dissection which dis-
closed them.

The right cerebral hemisphere was removed down to the level of the
corpus callosuni, as seen in Pig. 4. At a point relatively much further
distant from its posterior edge, 14, than is the case in man, we see the
internal perpendicular fissure, 16. Posteriorly again to this fissure,
and running nearly parallel with it, we see a second, 17, the " scissure
des hippocampes" ol'M. Gratiolet. Corresponding with this indenta-
tion, we have within the cavity of the ventricle an eminence, 19, the
lesser hippocampus, bounded by an arm or creek running up, 18, along
its outer surface from the central ventricular expanse. This arm or
creek was called, by another metaphor than those we have used, the
third cornu of the lateral ventricle, in the phraseology of the old anato-
mists. The large smooth headland into which the hippocampus swells
at 19, justifies the expression we find at page 19 of M. Gratiolet' s
work — "L' anfractuosite d' ergot . . . qui est plus evidente encore
dans les Singes que dans V Homme" In the brain of a cercopithecus
now before us, its proportions are very much larger. The width of
this third cornu was at its commencement three-eighths of an inch ;
and the similar cavity in a human brain examined at the same time
was of the same width. But the cavity narrows much more rapidly in
the orang than in man; and before reaching its termination, at a distance
of one inch from its commencement, it becomes almost a linear cavity ;
but, as our figure shows, the distinctness of its limiting walls and the
continuity of its lining membrane were unambiguously visible up to its
very extremity. The length of this third cornu is as great absolutely,
and relatively, therefore much greater in the cercopithecus, than in the
orang. In the human brain it was but half an inch longer than in the
orang, scooped out though it was in a posterior lobe relatively very
much longer. Neither in the cercopithecus, nor in the orang, does the
bourrelet or posterior rounded edge of the corpus callosum extend
nearly so far back as to allow us to take it as " the best measure of the
position" of the third cornu;* indeed, when we find Tiedemann speak-
ing of the pedes hippocampi minores as "Processusf duo medullares
qui a posteriore corporis callosi margine proficiscuntur," it is easy to
understand how he came to overlook their existence altogether, " in
cerebro Simiarum desunt," being so far in error as to their relations to
neighbouring parts.

This relation of the posterior edge of the corpus callosum to the
commencement of the third cornu is of importance, not merely as a
guide to the discovery of that fissure, but also as, when coupled with
the relations which the corpus callosum holds to the internal occipital
figure 16, laterally, and to the corpora quadrigcmina posteriorly, speak-
ing unambiguously of great diminution of the antero-posterior diameter
of the simious corpus callosum.

Nat. Hist. Rev., 1. c, p. 79. f Icones, p. 51.

ROLLESTON ON T1IE BBAIN OF THE OEANG UTANG. 215

The hippocampus major presents several well-marked corrugations
on its expanded lower extremity, " qua3 huic parti tanquam figuram di-
gitornm pedis tribuunt;"*4 but as they are on its posterior, not on its an-
terior edge, we are not compelled to contradict Tiedemann's twenty-first
corollary, which relates to the hippocampus major, in the same way as
our figures compel us to differ from his twenty-second, quoted above,
with reference to the hippocampus minor.

It is for the sake of illustrating yet further the important principle,
that variability of arrangement is to be expected, rather than wondered
at, in organisms as high as those of these apes, that I add the follow-
ing observations as to the convolutions on the internal aspect of the he-
mispheres. There is scarcely any indication of a lobulus quadratus, the
structure representing it resembles but little the figure of it as given by
M. Gratiole in his third plate ; whilst, as if in compensation, the supe-
rior marginal convolution, spoken of by him as "tree simple et a peu
pres lisse" dans 1' Orang (page 49 in hisMemoire), presents, in our spe-
cimen, abundant and rich convolutions.

The internal anatomy of the simious brain does not furnish us, then,
with those sharply differentiating characteristics which have been sup-
posed to put it into a position of such marked inferiority to that of man.

As to the external anatomy, whilst too little importance has perhaps
been assigned to the points of difference which the very widely-differing
heights of the hemispheres, the very widely-differing antero-posterior
diameters of the corpora callosa, and of the frontal lobes, and the very
widely-differing absolute weights of the two brains, constitute, too much
seems to have been given to the " absence of an external perpendicular
fissure," to the " presence of a lobule of the marginal convolution," and
to the lesser relative size of the nerves in the human brain. Upon most
other points, I find myself in agreement with most other writers,
both as to facts and to inferences ; the cumulative weight of the many
minor points of agreement and difference, the reader will be best able to
appreciate, by massing each order of facts together for himself.

The principles of the idealist teach him that the difference which
exists between the soul of man and the life of the beast which perishes,
is not one which can be weighed or measured, be drawn or figured, be
calculated in inches or ounces. He fearlessly acknowledges that the
anatomical truth in this matter lies on the boundary line of the conter-
minous positions taken up by Buffon and Professor Huxley, respectively;
for he feels that yet higher truth is expressed in the golden words but
recently rescued from long oblivion —

" On earth there is nothing great but man ;
In man there is nothing great but mind."

* Icones, p. 51.

216 ORIGINAL ARTICLES.

Description of Plates.

These four views of the brain of the orang are copies of photographs
taken of it by Messrs. Hills and Saunders, of Oxford. The brain had been
carefully hardened in spirit for as much as two months before it was thus
photographed. The figures are numbered in the order in which the pho-
tographs were taken. The numbers placed upon the convolutions on the
exterior surface of the brain will be found to correspond with those
similarly employed by M. Gratiolet in his invaluable Memoire sur les
Plis Cerebraux de 1' Homme et des Primates, so often referred to.

Fig. 1, is a lateral view of the brain of the orang. It shows the fol-
lowing points : —

i. The even curve described by the superior boundary line of
the hemispheres.

ii. The vertical direction of the fissure of Sylvius, P.

iii. The failure of the posterior lobes to cover the cerebellum
entirely.

iv. The diminished downward growth of the posterior lobes, as
shown by the obliquity of a line drawn along their surface
where it lies upon the cerebellum, C.

v. The presence of the outer part of the lateral vertical fissure,
which outer part is always filled up in man, even when
the inner may not be so, as the inner is in the orang.
Pig. 2 is a basal view of the same brain. It shows the following
points : —

i. The great relative thickness of the nerves to the mass of the
brain.

ii. The absence of any marked excavation of the orbital lobes.

iii. The lateral and posterior development of the cerebellar he-
mispheres.
Pig. 3 represents the brain of the orang as seen from above. It shows
the following points : —

i. The greater extent to which the cerebellum has come into view

on the left side than on the right.
ii. The want of symmetry between the two sides of the cere-
brum. The longitudinal fissure seems on the left to be
bounded by a continuous vertically unindented table-land,
on the right by a table-land indented at two points. The
posterior of these two points corresponds to the external
vertical fissure, the first or superior pli de passage a, a be-
ing partially concealed under the operculum, and allowing
us thus to mark off the occipital from the principal lobes
nearly as sharply as in the Chimpanzee. The three frontal
convolutions, 1 , 2, 3 ; the two ascending parietals, 4, 5,
and the lobule of the second ascending convolution, 5', are
asymmetrical on the two sides of the brain.

E0LLESI0N ON THE BRAIN OF THE OBANG UTANG. 217

iii. The absence of the second pli de passage is well seen on both
sides of the brain ; and the wave-like anterior edge of the
occipital lobes constituting the " operculum" is especially-
well marked on the right side.
Fig. 4. Brain of orang dissected, so as to show the lateral ventricle of
the right side, its three cornua and the hippocampus minor, 19.
It shows, besides, the different relations which the bourrelet of the
corpus callosum holds in the ape and in man : —
i. To the commencement of the third cornu, 18.
ii. To the internal perpendicular fissure, 16.
iii. To the hemispheres which it connects.

1. Inferior frontal convolution. — "Etage frontal inferieur" ofGratiolet.

2. Middle frontal. — "Etage frontal moyen."

3. Superior frontal. — "Etage frontal superieur."

4. Eirst ascending parietal. — " Premier pli ascendant."

5. Second ascending parietal. — "Deuxieme pli ascendant."

5'. Lobule of second ascending parietel. — " Lobule du deuxieme pli

ascendant."
6 and 6'. Convolution running below, and parallel with the lower lip of

the Sylvian fissure. — " Pli courbe."
7. Lower lip of Sylvian fissure. — " Pli marginal inferieur."

10. Superior occipital convolution. — " Etage superieur du lobe occi-
pital."

11. Middle occipital convolution. — " Etage moyen."

12. Inferior occipital convolution. — " Etage inferieur."

13. Corpus striatum.

14. Posterior edge of corpus callosum.

15. Eornix.

16. Internal occipital fissure.

17. " Scissure des hippocampes."

1 8. Third cornu of lateral ventricle.

19. Hippocampus minor;

a. Anterior lobes.

b. Middle temporo -sphenoidal lobe.

c. Cerebellum.

d. Occipital lobes.

e. Medulla oblongata.

f. Fissure of Sylvius.

g. Pons.

a. Convolution connecting the superior occipital convolution (10), to the
lobule of the 2nd ascending parietal &'.

VOL. T. N. H. E. 2 F

( 218 )

§iWragrap[jg

The following Catalogue includes — 1 . Additions to the former list of
existing Periodicals. 2. All works and papers, &c, on Zoological,
Palseontological, and Physiological subjects, that have appeared during
the year 1860; and, 3. The Botanical Bibliography for the last three
months of 1860, not included in our former number. The subjects will
be arranged as follows : —

1. PERIODICAL PUBLICATIONS.

I. Additions to the list of existing Peeiodicals.

2. ZOOLOGICAL.

II. General and mixed works relating to Zoology and the geogra-
graphical distribution of animals.

III. Mammalia, including Anthropology.
IV. Aves.

V. Reptilia and Amphibia.
VI. Pisces.

VII. Anntjlosa. Subdivided under the heads of —

1. General and mixed.

2. Crustacea.-

3. Arachnida and Myriapoda.

4. Insecta.

5. Annulata. Consisting of —

Annelida.
Suctoria.
Annuloida. The last group containing the —

Scolecida.
Rotifera.
Echinodermata.

VIII. Mollusca. Subdivided into —

1. General and mixed.

2. Cephalophora.

3. Acephala. Including the —

Lamellilranchiata.
Brachiopoda.

PERIODICALS. 219

4. Molluscoida. Including —
Polyzoa.
Tunicata.

IX. Ccelesterata. Consisting of —

1. Hydrozoa.

2. Actinozoa.

X. Protozoa.
XI. Physiology, &c. Subdivided into —

1 . General and mixed.

2. Nervous System, and Organs of Sense.

3. Respiratory and Sanguineous Systems.

4. Digestive, Assimilative, and Glandular Systems.

5. Motor and Supporting Organs (muscle, bone, &c).

6. Histology and Human Anatomy.

XII. Palaeontology.

3. BOTANICAL.

XIII. Phanerogamia.

XIV. Cryptogamia.

XXI. — Periodicals.
{Additions to former List of existing Periodicals.)

1. America.

Ell. Soc. Journ. — Journal of the Elliott Society of Natural History.
4to. Charleston.

Ell. Soc. Proc. — Proceedings of the Elliott Society of Natural His-
tory of Charleston, South Carolina. Plates. 8vo. Charleston.

Nev-Gran. Bol. — Boletin de la Sociedad de Naturalistas Nuev-Grana-
dinos. 8vo. Bogota.

New Orl. Proc. — Proceedings of the Academy of Sciences of New
Orleans. 8vo. New Orleans.

St. Eranc. Proc. — Proceedings of the Academy of Sciences of St.
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St. Louis, Trans. — Transactions of the Academy of Science of St.
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2. Great Britain, Ireland, and the Colonies.

As. Soc. Journ. — Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. 8vo.
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220 BIBLIOGRAPHY.

Ent. Ann. — Entomological Annual.

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Geol. Assoc. — Proceedings of the Geologists' Association. 8vo.

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3. Prance.

Mem. d'Anthr. — Memoires de la Societe d' Anthropologic de Paris.
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Moselle, Bull. — Bulletin de la Societe d'Histoire Naturelle du De-
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4. Germany.

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Dorp. Arch. — Archiv. f. d. Naturkunde. 8vo. Dorpats.

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ZOOLOGY, GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION, ETC. 221

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^oclogiral §ibIio(jrnpljg.

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These Reports, by Blyth, contain many important notes and de-
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222 BIBLIOGRAPHY.

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Note accompagnant la presentation de la premiere partie du

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ZOOLOGY, GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION, ETC. 223

Huxley, T. H. — Time and Life. Mr. Darwin's "Origin of Species."

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Species and Races. — Royal Inst. Proc, July, 1860. p. 195.

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the Zoological Society of London, from animals in their Vivarium.

Parts 11 and 12. Folio. London, 1860. Graves and Co.
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Teil., 1860.
Thomson, J. — Arcana naturae, ou Archives d'histoire naturelle. Liv.

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d. Naturgeschichte. 8vo. Berlin, 1860.
Turk, R. — Zur Fauna Austriaca. Wien E. Mon., 1861.
Venables, E., and Moore, G. — A new Guide to the Isle of Wight,

8vo. London, 1860. (Appendix, by A. G. Moore, contains " Out-
line of the Natural History of the Isle of Wight.")
Wagner, Rud. — Bericht liber die Arbeiten in der allgemeinen Zoologie

und der Naturgeschichte des Menschen im Jahr, 1859. Weigm.

Arch., 1860. Bd. II., p. 1.
Wallich, G. C. — Notes on the Presence of Animal Life at vast depths

in the Sea, with observations on the Nature of the Sea Bed, as

bearing on Submarine Telegraphy. (For private circulation). 8vo.

London, 1860.
Results of Soundings in the North Atlantic. A. N. H. Ser. VI.,

p. 457.
Weinland, D. F. — Was ein Zool. Garten leisten soil. Zool. Gart., Oct.,

1860, p. 1.
Wilde, W. R. — An Essay on the Unmanufactured Animal Remains in

the Royal Irish Academy, illustrative of the Ancient Animals of Ire-
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224 BIBLIOGRAPHY.

Wood, J. G. — Illustrated Natural History, with designs by "Wolf,
Zwecker, Weir, &c. Vol. I., Mammalia. 480 engravings. Royal
8vo. London, 1860.

XXIII. — Mammalia, including Anthropology.

Adams, A. — Xote on the Fox of Japan. Proc. Zool. Soc. 1860, p. 195.

A. X. H. 3 ser. vi., p. 232.
Aeby, C. — Muskeln d. Vorderarms u. d. Hand bei Saugethieren u. d.

Menschen. Plate. Geitschr. w. Z. X., 1.
Aucapitaine, M. — Sur la question de l'existence d'Ours dans les Mon-

tagnes de l'Afrique septentrionale. C. rend. L., p. 655.
Xotes sur l'Antilope Addax, le Meha des Arabes. Rev. et

Mag. deZool. 1860, p. 145.
Baer, K. E. de. — Sur les nouvelles acquisations de la collection cra-

niologique. Petersb., Bull. I.
Die Makrokephalen im Boden d. Krym u. Osterreichs. 3 plates,

4to, Petersb. 1860.
Ueber Papuas u. Alfuren. Commentar. zu " Crania selecta,"

in Petersb. Mem. x.
Crania selecta ex thesauris anthropologicis Acad. Petropolitanae.

16 plates. 4to. Petersb. 1860.
Bartlett, A. D. — Xotes on some young Hybrid Bears, bred in the Gar-
dens of the Zoological Society. Proc. Zool. Soc. 1860, p. 130; A.

X. H. 3 ser. v., p. 432.
Becker, L. — Xotes on an Australian Bat. Trans. Phil. Inst. Victoria,

vol. iv., p. 41.
Bennett, G — Xotes on the Habits of the Brown Coati (JYasua fusca,

Desm.). Proc. Zool. Soc, 1860, p. 323.
Bilharz, A. — Beschreibung d. Genitalorgane einiger schwarzen Eu-

nuchen. 2 plates. Zeitsch. w. Z. X. 3.
Blyth, E.— On the great Rorqual of the Indian Ocean. Journ. As. Soc.

Beng., 1859. 5.
On the different Animals known as Wild Asses. Ann. X. H.,

3rd series, vi., p. 233. (From the Journal of the Asiatic Society of

Bengal, 1859.) Vid. Strachey.

On the flat-horned Taurine Cattle of S. E. Asia ; with a note on

the races of Reindeer, and a note on Domestic Animals in general.
As. Soc. Trans., 1860, p. 282.

Boudin — Du non-cosmopolitisme des races humaines. M. S. Anth., I.,
p. 93.

Brandt, J. F. — Xote sur un memoire traitant de Tanatomie d'une Gi-
raffe— le Nafais de Plinius est-il identique avec sa Camelopardalis ?
Petersb., Bui. I.

MAMMALIA. 225

Brandt, J. F — Untersuchungen liber die Verbreitung des Tigers (Felts
tigris), und Seine beziehungen zur Menschheit. Pet. Mem., p. 147.

Observations sur l'anatomie dn Muse (Moschus moschiferus).

Petersb. Mem. I.

Bboca, Paul — Recherches sur l'Ethnologie de la France. M. S. Anth.,
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Buffon (Euvres completes, avec des extraits de Daubenton et la Clas-
sification de Cuvier. Tom. iii., Mammiferes, torn. i. 1 8 coL plates,
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Campex, F. A. W. v. — Ontleedkundig onderzoek van den Potto van
Bosman. Uitzjine nagelaten aanteekeningen bijeengebragt door J.
van der Hoeven. 3 plates. Amst. Verh. vii.

Clelaxd J". — Notes of the dissection of a female Beaver. R. S. E. Proc,
1860, p. 318.

Cobbold, Be. T. S. — Contributions to the anatomy of the Giraffe.
Proc. Zool. Soc, 1860, p. 99.

Ebeeth , J. — Atrichia eines neugebornen, ausgetragenen Kalbes. Wurz.
K Z. I. p. 325.

Escheicht, M. — Sur les Baleines franches due Golfe de Biscaye. C.
rend. 1860. I. p. 92.

Fitzingee, L. J. — Untersuchungen liber d. Racen der Hausziege. 8vo.
Vienna.

Versuch liber d. Abstammung d. zahmen Pferder u. seiner Ba-
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Geoffeoy St. Hilaiee, Isldobe. — Sur les diverses tentatives d' introduc-
tion et d' acclimatation du Lama et de 1' Alpaca en dehors del' Ame-
rique et particulierement sur le troupeau que vient d' arriver a Paris.
C. R., LI. p. 429.

Classification geologique et Anthropologique ; communication

accompagnant la presentation de trois tableaux synoptiques. C. R.
LI. p. 432.

The author admits of three primary groups of animals : —
The Binary of M. de Blainville, the Radiate, and the Homo-
geneous. These groups represent three terms of a very regular
series ; and their essential characters admit of being brought under
geometrical and arithmetical considerations.

From the first to the last, similarity is manifested more and more
strongly, whilst the mode of co-ordination becomes simplified. Thus
in the first group, to take the geometrical character, the co-ordina-
tion of the similar parts takes place in relation to a plane, or more
generally to a surface ; in the second, in relation to a line ; and in
the third, to a point, spine, axis, or centre. In the first division,
moreover, the corresponding parts are repeated in pairs; in the second,
in groups of several to several ; and in the third, in a very great or

VOL. I. N\ H\ E. 2 G

226 BIBLIOGRAPHY.

indefinite, if not infinite nuinber. Or, in other words we find, duality,
definite multiplicity, and indefinite multiplicity, or indefinity.

"With respect to man, the author admits twelve races. Of these
the four principal are the Caucasian, Mongolian, Ethiopian, and
Hottentot. The Caucasian race is distinguished essentially by the
predominance of the superior region of the head over the face ; the
Mongolian, by the predominance of the middle region; and the
Ethiopian, by that of the inferior region, which projects in front.
The most remarkable characteristic of the Hottentot resides in the
predominance of both the middle and inferior region, that is to say,
of the entire face, which is at the same time broad and prognathous.
In other words, the Caucasian race is orthognathous, the Mongolian
eurygnathous, the Ethiopian prognathous, and the Hottentot both
eurygnathous and prognathous. In addition to this very important
character, which ranks the Hottentot, in fact, in the series of human
races, in a place diametrically opposite to the Caucasian, we find in
the Hottentot race a peculiar mode of insertion of the hairs, a special
disposition of the toes, which decrease gradually, like the reeds in
a Pan's-pipe, from the inner to the outer ; the development of the
nymphce, and various osteological,* and encephalic peculiarites, which
have already been well studied by different authors. Between these
four cardinal groups are placed the other races, which are modified
and intermixed in so many ways as to constitute a sort of net-
work, uniting more or less intimately all the varieties of the human

type-

The races regarded by M. G. St. Hilaire as sufficiently distinct
are the following : —

1. Races with smooth hair: — Caucasian, Alleghanian, Hyper-
borean, Malay, American ; Mongolian-, Paraborean, Australian.

2. Paces with woolly-hair: — Ethiopian, Caffre, Melanian ;
Hottentot.

Graeffe, E. — TJeber Delphinus tursio, Fabr. Zur Vier. v.
Gratiolet, Pierre. — Memoire sur la Microcephalic, considered dans

ses rapports avec la question des caracteres da genre humain. M.

Soc. Anth. i., p. 61.
Recherches sur le Systeme vasculaire sanguin d'Hippopotame.

— Comp. rend li., p. 524, and Ann. Sc. N. xiii., p. 376.

Eecherches sur l'encephale de l'Hippopotame. Comp. rend, li.,

p. 595.
Gray, J. E. — Early Notice of the Tapaia (corr. Tupaia) found in Pulo

Condore. Ann. and Mag. W. H. ser. iii. vol. v., p. 71.
On some New Species of Mammalia and Tortoises from Cambo-

ja. Ann. Nat. Hist. 3 ser. vi., p 217.

* The most remarkable of these is the non-bifurcation of the spinous processes of the
cervical vertebrae, first pointed out by M. Duvernay.

MAMMALIA. 227

Gray, J. E. — OiiRusaJaponica, a new species ofEusa Deer, from Japan. —
Ann. and Mag, N. H. Ser. 3. vol. vi., p. 218.

Probably Cervus siha in summer pelage. See Sclater in P. Z.
S. 1860.

Description of a new Species of Cuscics (C. ornatus) from the

island of Batchian, with a List of the Mammalia collected in that
island by Mr. A. B. Wallace. Proc. Zool. Soc, 1860.

Note on the Species of the Genns Pithecia, with descriptions of

a new Species, P. albicans. Proc. Zool. Soc. 1860, p. 228.
Notiz iiber eine neue Antilope. Wiegm. Arch. xxvi. 3.

Gruber, W. — Anatomie d. Eingeweide des Leoparden. 4 plates.

Petersb. Mem. diy. Sav. viii.
Gurlt, E. F. — Handbuch der vergleichenden Anatomie der Haus-

Saugethiere. 4th edition. 8vo. 1860.

Hand Atlas for the same. 22 plates, 10 col. 4to. lb. 1860.

Hensel, E. — Bericht iiber d. Leistungen d. Naturgeschichte d. Sauge-

thiere, 1859. Wiegm. Arch. xxvi. p. 19.
Hincks, W Eemarks on the Classification of Mammalia. — Can. Journ.

1860, p. 512.
Hoeven, J. v. d. — Catalogus craniorum diversarum gentium quae colle-

git. Lugd. Bat.
Hogg, John On a species of Phalangista recently killed in the County

of Durham. Pep. Brit. Ass. 1859. Trans. Lect. p. 149. Also a

Trans. Tyneside Nat. Eield Club, Vol. iv. pt. 2, p. 180.
Leidy, J. — An Elementary Treatise on Human Anatomy. With 392

illustrations. 8vo, pp. xxiv. 663. Philadelphia, 1861.
Leydig, Eranz. — Ueber den Schwanzenstachel des Lowen. Arch. Anat.

1860, p. 820.
Loche. — Description de deux nouv. especes du genre Dauphin. Plate.

Eev. d.Z. 1860.
Marcotte, E Les Animaux vertebres de l'arrondissement d' Abbeville.

Abbeville, 1860.
M'Bain, James Notice of the Skull of a Manatee from Old Calabar.

Eep. Brit. Ass. 1859. Trans. Lect. p. 150.
Macgillivrat, John. — On the Habit of Notopteris Macdo?ialdiii Gray.

Ann. K H. 3 ser. vi., p. 152.
Meigs, J. A., M.D. — Observations upon the Eorm of the Occiput in

the various Eaces of Men. Phil. Acad. Proc, 1860, p. 397.
Muller, H. — Ueber d. elastischen Easern am Nackenbande d. Giraffe.

Wurz. N. Z. L, pp. 162.
Murray, Andrew. — On a New Species of Galago (Galago murinus)

from old Calabar. Eep. Brit. Ass., 1859. Trans. Lect, p. 153.
Supplementary Eemarks on the Genus Galago. With a plate.

Phil. Journ., 1860, p. 99.
NATHusrus, Hv. — Die Eacen des Schweines. Eine zoologische Kritik

und Andeutungen iiber systematische Behandlung der Hausthier-

Eacen. 8vo. Berlin.

228 MBLIoGfiAPHi'.

Kisser, P. — On some Domesticated Animals of South America, which
would be useful in Victoria. Vict. Trans, iv., p. 65-69.

Owen, R. — Report on a Series of Skulls of various Tribes of Mankind
inhabiting Nepal, collected and presented to the British Museum
by Bryan H. Hodgson, Esq. Rep. Brit. Ass., 1859, p. 95.

Memoir on the Megatherium or Giant Ground-Sloth of America

{Megatherium Americanum, Cuvier). 113 pages. 4to. 27 plates,
4to and folio. 4to. Alhbord, 1861.

Perier, J". A. N. — Essai surles croisments ethniques. M. S. Anth. I.,
p. 69.

Peters, "W.-— Ueber einige merkwiirdige Nagethiere des K. zoologis-
chen Museums. Berl. Monats., p. 134.

Petherick, J. — Memoranda on the Hippopotamus and Balceniceps, re-
cently imported to England, and now in the Gardens of the Zoolo-
gical Society. Proc. Zool. Soc, 1860, p. 195.

Pucheran. — Des caracteres zoologiques des mammiferes dans leurs
rapports avec les fonctions de locomotion. 4to. Paris, 1860.

Redeern, Peter. — On the Structure of the Otolithes of the Cod ( Gadus
Morrhua). Rep. Brit. Ass., 1859. Trans. Sect., p. 174.

Reichert, C. B. — Beitrage zur Entwicklungsgeschichte des Meersch-
weinchens (Cavia Cobaya). Arch. Anat., 1860, p. 848.

Robin, Ch. — Memoire sur la Structure intime de la vesicule ombilicale
chez les Mammiferes. Com. rend, li., p. 624.

Sand with, H. — Note sur 1' Aye- Aye, Cheiromys Madagascareensis, Cuv.
Maierit. Trans., 1860, p. 282.

Saussure, H. de. — Note snr quelques Mammiferes du Mexique par
M. H. de Saussure. Rev. etMag. de Zool., 1860, part 1 ; id. part 2,
p. 53 ; id. part 3, p. 98 ; id. part 4, p. 241 ; id. part 5, p. 282 ; id.
part 6, p. 377.

Schlegel, K— Natuurlijke Historie van Nederland. De dieren van
Nederland. Gewervelde dieren. Part iv. 10 plates. 8vo. Haarlem.

Schroeder, O. — Beschreibung eines Cretinenschadels. Virch. Arch.
XXII., p. 358.

Sclater, P. L. — Note on the Punjab Sheep living in the Society's Gar-
dens. Proc. Zool. Soc, 1860, p. 126.

— List of Mammalia, collected by Mr. J. J. Monteiro in Angola.

Proc. Zool. Soc, 1860, p. 245.

Note on the Skull of the Red River Hog (Potamochcerus peni-

cillatus). Proc. Zool. Soc, 1860, p. 301

Stewart, T. H Remarks on the Stomach of the Potamochcerus peni-
cillatus. Proc. Zool. Soc, 1860, p. 194.

Strachet, R. — Memorandum on Mr. Blyth's Paper on the Animals
known as Wild Asses. As. Soc Journ. 1860, p. 136; An. N. H.,
3rd ser., vi., p. 389.

Tomes, R. E. — Description of six undescribed species of Bats. Ann.
Nat. Hist. 3rd ser., v., p. 51.

„ A Monograph of the Genus Epomophorus, with the description

of a new species. Proc Zool. Soc, 1860, p. 42.

AYES. 229

Tomes, R. F. — Description of a new species of Opossum, obtained by Mr.

Fraser in Ecuador. Proc. Zool. Soc, 1860, p. 58.
Notes on a second collection of Mammalia, made by Mr. Fraser

in the Eepublic of Ecuador. Proc. Zool. Soc, 1860, p. 211.

Notes on a third collection of Mammalia, made by Mr. Fraser

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Additional Note on Didelphys JFaterhousii. Proc. Zool. Soc,

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Tubnee, W. — On the Thyroid Gland in the Cetacea ; with Observa-
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"\Yelnland, D.F. — Tod einer Kuhantilope (Antilope lubalis) wahrschein-
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Yorlesung iiber die Beutelthiere. Zool. Gart., Dec, 1860,

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"VYllson, Daniel. — Notice of a Skull brought from Kertch, in the Cri-
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XXIV.— Ayes.

Abbott, C. C — The Penguins of the Falkland Islands. Ibis, 1860,
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Baedekee, F. W. J — Die Eier der europaischen Yogel nach der Natur
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Baled, S. F — The Birds of North America ; the descriptions of Spe-
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Baenston, G Recollections of the Swans and Geese of Hudson's Bay.

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Beckee, L. — Notes on the young of Menura superba. In a Letter to

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Bennett, G. — Letter from, respecting a new species of Cassowary-
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Brewer (Th. M.). — North American Oology. Part i. Raptores and

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Catalogue of Birds from the Island of St. Thomas, "West Indies,

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Rev. et Mag. de Zool. 1860, p. 424. _
Crisp, Dr. E On the Structure, relative size, and use of the Tail

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Observations ausujet des considerations sur les ceufs des Oiseaux

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AYES. 231

Des Murs, 0. — sur le Passer domesticus et sa place oologique dans la serie.

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Galliard, L. 0. and Breh.u, Ludw. — Verzeichniss der Vogel des Tha-

les Greyerz im Canton Freiburg in der Schweiz, Mit Anmerkungen

von L. Brehm. Journ. f. Orn., 1860, p. 228.
Gatke, Herr H. — On the occurrence of American Birds in Europe.

Proc. Zool. Soc, 1860, p. 105.
Goodwin, "W. — On an apparently New Species of Paradise Bird. Proc.

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Gould, J. — A Monograph of the Trochilidae, or Humming Birds. Parts

in., xix. and xx. 30 col. plates, fol. London, 1860.
On a new Species of Odontophorus. Ann. Nat. Hist. 3d ser.

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On the Nidification of the Kingfisher (Alcedo ispida). Ann.

N. H. 3d ser. v. p. 131.
Description of a new Species of American Partridge. Proc.

Zool. Soc. 1860, p. 62.

Descriptions of Twenty-two new Species of Humming Birds.

Proc Zool. Soc, 1860, p. 304.
Gray, G. R. — Synopsis of the Species of the Genus Penelope, Proc.

Zool. Soc, 1860, p. 269.
Gurnet, J. H. — Note on the Eggs of the Eared Vulture and the Wedge-
tailed Eagle. Ibis, 1860, p. 171.
On Birds collected in the Colony of Natal, in South-Eastern

Africa. Ibis, 1860, p. 203.
Hartlaub, G. — Bericht iiber die Leistungen in der Naturgeschichte

der Vogel wahrend des Jahres, 1859. "VViegm. Arch., 1860, Bd. ii.,

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Systematische Uebersicht der Vogel Madagascars'. Journ. f.

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On a New Form of Grallatorial Bird, nearly allied to the Cari-

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232 BIBLIOGRAPHY.

Hartlattb, G., and Monteiro, J. T. — On some Birds collected in Angola.

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Heine, Fred. — Ueber die Gattung Cyanocorax, Boie. Journ. f. Orn.,

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Ueber zwei nene Waldlieste {Sauropatis), Journ. f. Orn., 1860,

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Hellman. — Notizen ueber Aha impennis und Podiceps ruoricollis.

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Heuglin, Hofrath T. von — On New or Little Known Birds of North-
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Jaubert, J. B., et Barthelemt-Lapommerage. — Bichesses ornitholo-

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sins. 3e fasc. 9 plates. 4to. Marseilles.
Lawrence, George N. — Description of three New Species of Humming

Birds of the Genera Heliomaster, Amazilia, and Melisuga. Ann.

Lye. N. H. New York, vii., April, 1860.
Le Moine, J. M. — Ornithologie du Canada. Quelques groupes d'apres la

Nomenclature du Smithsonian Institution de "Washington. 8vo.

1 ptie., pp. 96. Quebec, 1860.
Letcester, A. A. — Notes on the Habits of Menura alberti. Proc. Zool.

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Lilljeborg, W. — Ornithologisca Bidrag. 8vo. Upsala, 1860.
Lindermayer, Bilter, A — Die Yogel Griechenlands. Ein Beitrag zur

Fauna dieses Landes. Passau, 1860, pp. 188. 8vo.
Loche. — Description de deux nouvelles especes d'Alouette decouvertes

dans le Zahara Algerien. Eev. et Mag. de Zool., 1860, p. 149.
M'Ilwraith, Thomas. — List of Birds ; Hamilton, Canada West. Can.

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Malherbe, Alfred. — Du Plumage chez les Picides. Moselle Bull.,

1860, p. 11.

Monographic des Picides. Metz., 1860. Livr. 5, 6, 7.

Midbendorf, A. v. — Die Isepiptesen Busslands. Grundlagen zur Er-

forschung der Zugzeiten und Zugrichtungen der Yogel Busslands.

Mem. Acad. Imp. Sc. Pet., viii., p. 3.
Monteiro, J. J. — On some Birds collected in Angola. Proc. Zool. Soc,

1860, p. 109.
Montes de Oca, B. — The Mexican Humming-birds. Proc. Acad. Sc.

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Moore, F. J. — On the Addition to the British Fauna of Pallas' s T&?ee-

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p. 105.
Moqtjin-Tandon, A Consideration sur les oeufs des Oiseaux. Eev.

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Naumann, J. A Naturgeschichte der Yogel Deutschland's, umgear-

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ayes. 233

Newton, A. — Note on the supposed occurrence of the Hirundo bicolor
of North America in England. Proc. Zool. Soc, 1860, p. 131.

On some Hybrid Ducks. Proc. Zool. Soc, 1860, p. 336.

Note on the Migratory Habits of the Song Thrush (Tardus mu-

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Remarks on the Anas (Anser) erythropus of Linnaeus. Ibis,

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Noedhann, Aeth. and Alex. — Uebersicht der bis jetzt in Einnland und

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4 plates. Vien. Sitz. 1859 (12).
Owen, Robert. — On the Habits of the Swallow-tailed Kite (JElano'ides

furcatus) Ibis, 1860, p. 240.
Panum, P. L. — Untersuchungen lib. die Enstehung v. Missbildungen
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Parker, "W. K. — Abstract of Notes on the Osteology of JBalceniceps

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Passler, "W. — Die Eier der Aim impennis in deutschen Sammlungen,
Journ. f. Orn., 1860, p. 58.

Pelzeln, A. v Zur Ornithologie der Insel Norfolk. Mit 1 Tafel,

Sitz. Wien Akad, xli. Band, No. 14, 1860. Mai 18, pp. 319-332.
Petherick, John. — Memoranda of habits of Balocniceps Rex. Zool. Proc.

1860, p. 195-198.
Philippi, It. A. — Uber zwei vermuthlich neue Chilenische Enten und
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and Landbeck, Ltjdw Beschreibung Zweier neuen Chile-

nischen Vogel aus den Geschlechtern Procellaria and Caprimulgus.
Wiegm. Arch., 1860, Bd. I., p. 279.
Powys, Hon. T. L. — Notes on birds observed in the Ionian Islands, and
the provinces of Albania proper, Epirus, Acarhania, and Montene-
gro. Ibis, 1860, p. 1. ; ibid. p. 133 ; ibid. p. 228.
Reinhardt, J. — Bemoerkninger om Redebygningen og. Eorplantings
forholdene hos Critopliagen-Slcegten. Dansk. Overs. Jany. 1860,
p. 32.
Reinhardt, R. — En Bemcerkning om det Berettegelse hvormed Picas
tridactylus er anfort i Fortegnelsen paa de i Danmark tuifne Eugle.
lb.
Salvin, Osbert. — History of the Derbyan Mountain-Pheasant ( Oreo-
phasis derlianus). Ibis., 1860, p. 248.

Notes on the Humming-birds^ of Guatemala. Ibis, 1860, p.

259.
Salvin, Osbert, and Sclater, P. L. — Contributions to the Ornithology

of Guatemala. Ibis., 1860, p. 28; ibid, p. 272.
Schlegel, H. — Notice sur le genre Corvus en description de la pie aux-

ailes brunes, Pica pyrrhoptera. Bijdragen t. d. Dierhmde, 8.
Sclater, P. L. — On the eggs of two Raptorial Birds from the Falkland
Islands. Ibis, 1860, p. 24.

VOL. I. — X. H. R. 2 H

234 BIBLIOGRAPHY.

Sclatek, P. L. — Note on Wallace's Standard-wing. Ibis, 1860, p. 26.

On an undescribed species of Hawk, from New Granada. Ibis,

1860, p. 147.
Note on the Egg and Nestling of the Californian Ynlture.

Plates. Ibis, 1860, p. 278.

Note on the Birds of Prey of New Guinea. Ibis, 1860, p.

322.

Further evidence of the distinctness of the Gambian and Eiip-

pell's Spur-winged Geese (Plectroptenis gamhensis and P. Ruppellii).
Proc. Zool. Soc. 1860, p. 38.

List of additional species of Birds collected by Mr. L. Eraser, at

Pallatanga, Ecuador ; with notes, and descriptions of new species.
Proc. Zool. Soc. 1860, p. 63.

List of Birds collected by Mr. Eraser in the vicinity of Quito

and during excursions to Pinchincha and Chimborazo ; with notes,
and descriptions of new species. Proc. Zool. Soc. 1860, p. 73.

List of Birds collected by Mr. Eraser in Ecuador, at Nanegal,

Calacali, Perucho, and Puellaro ; with Notes, and descriptions of
New Species. Proc. Zool. Soc. 1860, p. 83.

On the Rheas in the Society's Menagerie, with remarks on the

known species of Struthious Birds. Proc. Zool. Soc. 1860, p
207.
On the black- shouldered Peacock of Latham (Pavo

Proc. Zool. Soc. 1860, p. 221.

On the species of the Genus Pnoniturus, and on the geographi

cal distribution of the Psittacidcd in the Eastern Archipelago. Proc
Zool. Soc. 1860, p. 223.

Notes on two Struthious Birds now living in the Society's Gar

dens. Proc. Zool. Soc. 1860, p. 247.

Notes on a collection of Birds from the vicinity of Orizaba

and neighbouring parts of Southern Mexico. Proc. Zool. Soc
1860, p. 250.

List of Birds collected by Mr. Eraser at Babahoyo, in Ecuador

with descriptions of new species. Proc. Zool. Soc. 1860, p. 272.
List of Birds collected by Mr. Eraser at Esmeraldas, Ecuador

with descriptions of new species. Proc. Zool. Soc. 1860, p. 291. ^

Description of a new species of Manakin from Northern Brazil

Proc. Zool. Soc. 1860, p. 312.

Description of a New Tyrant Bird of the Genus Elainea from

the Island of St. Thomas. Proc. Zool. Soc. 1860, p. 313.
Sclater, P. L., and Salvin, O. — Characters of eleven new species of

Birds discovered by Osbert Salvin in Guatemala. Proc. Zool. Soc.

1860, p. 298.
Simpson, "W. H— Ornithological Notes from Mesolonghi and Southern

JEtolia. Ibis, 1860, p. 279.
Speke, Capt. J. E. — On Birds collected in the Somali country, Eastern

Africa. Plate vii. Ibis, 1860, p. 243.

ayes. 235

Simpson, W. H. — On the Nesting of Aquila imperialis and Falco sacer.

Ibis, 1860, p. 375.
Further observations on some of the Birds of Western Greece.

Ibis, 1860, p. 378.
Swinhoe, R.— -Ornithology of Amoy. As. Soc. Journ., 1860, p. 240.

Ibis, 1860, p. 45.
Additions and Corrections to the Ornithology of Amoy.

Ibis, 1860, p. 130.
Further Corrections and Additions to the Ornithology of

Amoy, with some remarks on the Birds of Formosa. Ibis, 1860,

p. 357.
Taylee, James. — Note on Falco Islandicus and F. Grcenlandicus. Rep.

Brit. Ass., 1859. Tran. Lect., p. 158.
Tayloe, Geoege Cavendish. — On Birds collected in the Republic of

Honduras, &c. Ibis, 1860, p. 10 ; id., part ii., p. 110 ; id., part iii.,

p. 222.
On Birds collected or observed in the Republic of Honduras,

with a short Account of a Journey across that country from the

Pacific to the Atlantic Ocean. Ibis, 1860, p. 10; ib., p. 110; ib.,

p. 222.
Tomes, R. F. — Remarks on the Internal Structure of the Bearded Tit-
mouse (Calamophilus b iarmicus). Ibis, 1860, p. 317.
Teisteam, H. B. — On the Ornithology of Northern Africa. Part iii.

Ibis, 1860, p. 68 ; ib., part iv., p. 149.
On the Eggs of the Nutcracker and Parrot-billed Crossbill.

Ibis, 1860, p. 168.

A few Leaves from a Naturalist's Note-Book in Eastern Algeria.

Ibis, 1860, p. 361.
Veeeeaux, J. — Description d' un Oiseau nouveau, Rev. et Mag. de

Zool., 1860, p. 206 (cum fig.) {Micropalama tacksanoivskia, Verr.

= Pseudoscolopax semipalmatus, Blyth.)
and Des Hues, O. — Description d'Oiseaux nouveauxde laNou-

velle Caledonie et indication des especes deja connues de ce pays.

Rev. et Mag. de Zool., 1860, p. 383.
Walkee, De. D. — Ornithological Notes of the Voyage of " The Fox"

in the Arctic Sea. Ibis, 1860, p. 165.
Wallace, A. R. — Notes on Semioptera Wallacii, Gray. Proc. Zool.

Soc, 1860, p. 61.

The Ornithology of Northern Celebes. Ibis, 1860, p. 140.

Welnland, D. F Yerzeichniss derjenigen Vogel die sich in Europa,

in Gefangenschaft fortgepflanzt haben. Zool. Gart., Nov., 1860, p. 22.
Waethattsen, R. K. — Zur Fortpflanzungsgeschichte des Europaischen

Seidenschwauzes, Ampelis, Linn. Bomby cilia garula, Briss. Mosc.

Bull., 1859, p. 411.
On the Nidification of certain Birds in North-Eastern Africa.

Plate v. Ibis, 1860, p. 122.
Weight, M. v. — Finlands Foglar, hufvudsakligen til deras dragter.

Part i. 8vo. Helsingfors, 1860.

236 BIBLIOGRAPHY.

XXV. — Reptilia and Amphibia.

Cope, E. D. — Supplement to a Catalogue of the Venomous Serpents in
the Museum of the Academy. Proc. Acad. Sc. Philad., 1860, p.
72.

Catalogue of Colubridae in the Museum of the Academy of Na-
tural Sciences of Philadelphia. Proc. Acad. Sc. Philad., I860., p.
74; id. part ii., p. 241.

Notes and Descriptions of new and little-known Species of Ame-

rican Reptiles. Phil. Acad. Proc, 1860, p. 339.

Descriptions of Reptiles from Tropical America and Asia. Phil.

Acad. Proc, 1860, p. 368.
Crisp, Dr. E.— Note on the Blood-Corpuscles of the Japanese Gigantic

Salamander {Sieboldia maxima). Proc. Zool. Soc, 1860, p. 203.
Gray, J. E. — Descriptions of new Species of Salamander from China and

Siam. Ann. Nat. Hist. 3d ser. v., p. 151.
i On some new Species of Mammalia and Tortoises from Cambo-

gia. Ann. N. H. 3d ser., vi., p. 217.

Note on Tetrapedos smithii. Jan. A. N. H. 3d ser. vi., p. 454.

— - Description of a Soft Tortoise (Aspidochelys Livingstonii) from
the Zambesi, sent to the British Museum by Dr. Livingstone. Zool.
Proc, 1860, p. 5.

Description of a new Genus of Boidce, discovered by Mr. Bates

on the Upper Amazon. Proc. Zool. Soc, 1860, p. 132.

Description of a new Species of Geoclemmys from Esmeraldas.

Proc. Zool. Soc, 1860, p. 231.
Gray, J. E. — Description of a new species of Emys lately living in the

Gardens of the Zoological Society. Proc. Zool. Soc 1860, p. 232.
— On the African Trionyces with hidden feet (JEmyda). Proc.

Zool. Soc. 1860, p. 314.
Gunther, Dr. A On a new Snake from the Galapagos Islands. Proc.

Zool. Soc. 1860, p. 97.

On the Reptiles of Siam. Proc. Zool. Soc 1860, p. 113.

Contributions to a knowledge of the Reptiles of the Himalaya

Mountains. Proc. Zool. Soc. 1860, p. 148.

Third list of cold-blooded Vertebrata, collected by Mr. Fraser in

Ecuador. Proc Zool. Soc 1860, p. 233.

Description of Homalocranium laticeps, a new Snake from Car-

thagena. Proc Zool. Soc. 1860, p. 240.

On new Reptiles and Fishes from Mexico. Proc Zool. Soc.

1860, p. 316.

Description of TJriechis microlepidotus, a new Snake from South

Africa. A. N. H. 3 ser. v. p. II

Description of Leptodeira torquata, a new Snake from Central

America. Plate. Do. pp. 169-71.

pisces. « 237

Gunther, Dr. A — Note on Psammophis Perroteli, D. and H. A. N. H-

3 ser. vi., p. 428.
Gurnet, J. H. — Note on Uriechis microlepidotus. Ann. N. H. 3 ser.,

t., p. 342.
Jan. — Iconographie generale des Ophidiens. Liv. i. 6 plates, 4to.

Paris, 1860.
Jan, Prof. — Tetrapedos neue Sauriergattung. "Wiegm. Arch., 1860,

p. 69.
Kennicott, R. — Descriptions of New Species of North American Ser-
pents in the Museum of the Smithsonian Institution, Washington.

Phil. Acad. Proa, 1860, p. 328.
Nourse, W. E. C On the Habits and Instincts of the Chameleon.

Rep. Brit. Ass., 1859. Trans. Lect., p. 153.
Pagenstecher, A. — Ueber d. ausgedehnte Vorkommen von Gallengangs-

netzen bei Reptilien. Plate. Wurz. N. Z. i., p. 248.
Peters. — Mittheilung iiber einige interessante Amphibien Ceylon's.

Berl. Mom, 1860 (4).
■ Ueber eine neue Gattung von Schlangen, Elapochrus, aus

Mexico. Plate. Berl. Mom, 1860 (6).

Ueber eine neue zu der Gattung OnycTioceplialus gehorige

"Wurmschlange, Ony otocephalus macrurus. Berl. Mom, 1860.

Neue Amerikanische Schlangen. Berl. Mom, 1860.

Ueber eine neue Gattung von Riesenschlangem Berl. Mom,

1860. (4).
Saunders, W. — On the Habits of Menolranchus lateralis. Can. Nat.

andGeolt., pp. 199-201.
Sequin, M. — Sur la duree de la vie chez des Crapauds renfermes dans

des blocs de platre, &c. Comp. Rend., vi., pp. 920-921.
Stricker, D. — Entwickelungsgeschichte der Bufo cinereus. Vien.

Sitzb., xxxix., p. 472.

XXVI.— Pisces.

Anderson, A. I. — A few remarks concerning a Parasitic Pish found in
the Holothuria of the Cocos Islands. Neer. Ind. Tigsk 1829
p. 259.

Abbott, C. C. D. — Descriptions of new species of American Presh- water
Pishes. Phil. Acad. Proc. I860, p. 325.

— Description of a new species of Chaetoessus, Cuv., from New
Jersey. Phil. Acad. Proc. 1860, p. 365.

— — Description of a new species of Astroscopus, Brev., in the Mu-
seum of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia. Phil
Acad. Proc. 1860, p. 365.

Description of a new species of Exoecetus from Chili. Phil.

Acad. Proc, 1860, p. 472.

238 BIBLIOGRAPHY.

Abbott, C. C. D. — Descriptions of four new species of North American

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Description of a new species of Apodal Pishes in the Museum

of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia. Phil. Acad.

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Bernstein, H. A. — Ueber d. Vorkommen eines einzigen Hodens bei

Centropus medius, Mull., und Centropus affinis, Horsf. Plate. Arch.

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Blyth, Ed. — The Cartilaginous Pishes of Lower Bengal. As. Soc.

Journ. 1860, p. 35.
Report on some Pishes received chiefly from the Sitang River,

and its tributary streams, Tenasserim Provinces. As. Soc. Journ.

1860, p. 138.
Beisout de Baeneville. — Description d'une nouvelle espece de Ceu-

thorhynchus. Rev. d. Zool. 1860, p. 537.
Castelnau, P. de Note sur les Poissons de l'Afrique australe. C

rend. L. p. 788.
Clapaeede, E Pisces vocales. Les Poissons qui emettent des sons

Arch. d. Sc. phys. et nat. ix. p. 47.
Couch, J History of the Pishes of the British Islands. Part i. 4 col

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de quelques idees sur la possibilite de reempoissoner le Golf de

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Mediterraneo. Tur. Mem. xviii.
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Pishes. Proc. Acad. Sc. Philad. 1860, p. 19.
« — On the pertinence of Alosa teres Dekay to the genus Lussumiera.

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Conspectus Piscium in Expeditione ad Oceanum Pacificum

Septentrionalem, C. Ringold et J. Rodgers ducibus, a Gulielmo

Stimpson collectorum. Phil. Acad. Proc, 1860, p. 100.
Monograph of the Genus Labrosomus, Sev. Phil. Acad. Proc,

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Monograph of the Genus Lalrax. Phil. Ac Proc, 1860, p. 108.

Monograph of the Philypni. Proc Acad. Soc Phil., p. 120.

Geay, J. E. — On the Mud-Pish of the Nile (Lepidosiren annectens).

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Guichenot, Al — Notice sur un nouveau Poisson du genre des Tricho-

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3 ser., v., p. 386.
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found on the Coast of Cornwall. Ann. N. H., 3 ser., vi., p. 46.
Catalogue of Acanthopterygian Fishes in the Collection of the

British Museum. Vol. ii., Squamipinnes, Cirrhitidce, Triglidce,

Trachimdce, Scicenidce, Polynemidw, Sphyrcenidce, Trichiuridce, Scom-

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Plectognathes, et des consequences qu'on peut en deduire pour la

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Memoires sur le squelette des Poissons plectognathes etudie au

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Hybtl. — TJeber Wirbelsynostosen u. Wirbelsuturen bei Fischen. Wien.

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Bermudas. P.Z. S., 1860, p. 185.
Kattp. — TJeber eine neue Art Trigla aus China, welche in die Abtheilung

der Lyren gehort. "Wiegm. Arch., 1860, p. 17.
Description of a new Species of Fish, Peristethus EieffelL Ann.

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On some new Genera and Species of Fishes, collected by Drs.

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Koplarchus, neues Genus d. Familie Labridae. Plate. Wiegm.

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TJeber d. Chaetodontidae. Wiegm. Arch. xxvi. 2, p. 133.

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Cyprinodonten. Mit. 1 Tafel. lb., p. 419.

TJebersicht der icthyologischen Ausbeute wahrend der Eeise

Sr. Kais. Maj. Fregatte Novara. lb., p. 423.

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240 BIBLIOGRAPHY.

der Wirbel der Selachier und einiger andern Fische. V. W. Phys.
Med. G. 1860.

Kolliker, A. — On the Structure of the Chorda Dorsalis of the Plagios-
toin.es and some other Fishes. Proc. Eoy. Soc, x., pp. 214, 222.

. Untersuchungen iiber das Ende d. Wirbelsaiile der lebenden

Ganoiden u. einiger Teleostier. Fol. Leipsic. Plates.

The end of the vertebral column in fishes exhibits the following
chief structural modifications : Unossified, or only partially ossified,
and containing no spinal canal, it consists of the chorda alone in
(JEsox) : principally of the chorda, surrounded by a more or less
complete cartilaginous sheath (Salmo, Alosa, Elops) : of a complete
cartilaginous tube, containing the chorda in its interior ( Cyprinus).
It consists of a cartilaginous tube, which contains the chorda and
invests the myelon in Polypterus, Amia and Lepidosteus. Or, the end
of the vertebral column is perfectly ossified ; and in this case it may
be formed by an ossified sheath developed around the chorda, or
urostyle (Acanthopteri (all ?) part of the Malacopteri) : or the ver-
tebral column may end in a true simple vertebral centrum (Plagios-
tomi), with completely ossified vertebrae.

The author points out that Agassiz and Yogt detected the hete-
rocercality of the adult Salmonidse (Anat. des Saumones, 1845),
and coincides generally with the views on this subject more recently
put forward by Heckel and by Huxley. He admits three degrees
of heterocercality : perfect (Acrolepis, Pygopterus, Acanthodes, Ca-
topterus, Amblypterus, Palceoniscus) : internal (Lepidosteus, Amia,
Salmo, Esox, Cyprinus) : imperfect, Polypterus, and probably many
others with imperfectly lobed tails.

Ueber d. Antheil d. Chordascheide an d. Bildung d. Schaedel-

grundes der Squalidae. Wurz. N. Z. i., p. 97.

Ueber d. Bau d. Sage d. Sagefisches. "Wurz. N. Z. i., p. 144.

Ueber den Inhalt d. Schleimsacke der Myxinoiden u. d. Epi-
dermis d. Neunaugen. Wurz. Nat. Z. 1860-L

Histologisches iiber Rhinocryptis (Lepidosiren) anneetens, Pet.

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ANNULOSA. 241

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XXVII.— Axxtjlosa.
1 . General and Mixed.

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2. Crustacea.

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Boecu, Axel. — Beskrivelse over toende nye parasitiske Krebsdyr Arto-
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VOL. I. X. H. E. 2 I

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Soc. Ent. Beige, 1860-1.
Observations sur la Chenille du Genre (Ecophora. Ann. Soc.

Ent. Beige, 1860-1.

et J. D'Udekem. — Notice sur la Coleojphora Olivacella. Ann.

Soc. Ent. Beige, 1860-1.
Observations sur les Chenilles de la Gracilaria Convohulella.

Ann. Soc. Ent. Beige, 1860-1.
Frauexfeld, G. V. — Diagnosen einiger neuer Insecten und Untersuc-

hung meherer Sandproben verschiedener Kiistenpunkte gesammelt

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pp. 447-469.
Fre, C. De. — Lepidopteres nouvellement decouverts en Belgique Ann.

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Frey, H. — Elachistidengeschlecht Laverna. Lin. ent. xiv.
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Gehin, J. B. — Quelques Essais de Sericiculture dans le Departernent

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Contains notices of much interest respecting the silk-yielding

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Notes pour servir a l'Histoire Des Insectes nuisibles dans la

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Gerstaecker, A. — Bericht liber die wissenschaftlichen Leistungen im

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. Uebersicht d. bis jetzt bekannten Arten d. Fulgorinengattung

Poiocera. 2 plates. Wiegm. Arch. xxvi.

ANNULOSA. 2 17

Gerstaecker, A.— Ueber d. Locustiuengattung Grillacris, Serv. Wiegni.

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Ueber Limosus, Dalm. Lin. ent. xiv.

Gill, Theod. — Monograph of the Philypni. Phil. Acad. Proc. 1860,

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Synopsis of the British Psocidae. Soc. Ent. Ann. 1861.

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Monographic der Termiten. Lin. ent. xiv.

Harold. — Diagnoses de Coleopteres europeensnouYeaux. Soc. Entoin.
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Hermann, H. C. — L'Abeille Italienne des Alpes ou la fortune des
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Ichneumonidemas lefnadssatt. Sveriges Pimplarise. Stock.

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Monographia Ophionidum Sueciae. (Ex act. reg. acad. scient.

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New British Coleoptera, in 1860. Ent. Ann. 1861.

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ANNUL0SA. 249

Mulsant, L. — Liv. 11 : Altisides. 8vo. lb., 1860.

Opuscules entomologiques. Cahier 6, 8, 9, et 10, 11. 8vo.

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On the Genus Eratenia, Doubl. ; with descriptions of some new

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Schineb, J. R.— Pauna austriaca. Die Fliegen. (Diptera.) Nach der

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New British Lepidoptera in 1859. Ent. Ann., 1860.

■ Observations on British Tineina. Ent. Ann., 1860.

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Descriptions of South African Tineina, collected by B. Trimer,

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Stavely, Miss. — Observations on the Neuration of the Hind Wings of
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ANNTTLOSA. 251

Thomson, C. G. — Sveriges Proctotruper. Stock. Ofvers. 1859.

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Characters of undescribed Diptera in the Collection of W. W.

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Characters of some apparently undescribed Ceylon Insects. Ann.

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Catalogue of Dipterous Insects collected in Amboyna, by Mr. A.

R. Wallace, with descriptions of new species. Linn. Proc. (Suppl.),
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Characters of undescribed JSfeuroptera in the Collection of W.

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Wallace, Alfred. — Note on the Habits of Scolytidae and BostrichidaB.

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Wallengren, H. D. J. — Lepidopterologische Mittheilungen. Wien.

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Skandinaviens Coleophorer. Stockh. Ofvers. 1859.

Waterhottse, G. R Notes on the British Species of Cissidce. Ent.

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Notes on the British Species of Donacia. Ent. Trans, v. p. 212.

Wollaston, T. Y. — On the Aphanarthra of the Canary Islands. A.N.H.

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On additions to the Madeiran Coleoptera. A. N. H. 3 ser. v.

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5. Annulata.

Annelida.
Suctoria. -
Annuloida.

Alder, Joshua — Description of a Zoophyte and two species of Echino-
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Anon. — Yerslag over den Paalworm, uitgegeven door le Natuurkun-

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Grube, Ed Beschreibung. neuer oder wenig bekannter Anneliden.

5ter Beitrag.

Polynoe clypeata.
,, areolata.
Spinther mineaceus.
Amphinome incarunculata.

,, sty lifer a.

Staurocephalus rulrovittatus.
Phyllodon macroceros.

,, punctifera.

,, alho-vittata.
Syllis variegata.

, , zebra.
Sylline rulropunctata.
Spiophanes Kroyeri.
Heterocirrus frontifilis.
Cirratulus tenuisetis.
Clymene leiopygos.
Maldane globifex.
Terebella cretacea.
turrita.

%ostericola.

gracilis*

rosea.

flexuosa.

ANNULOSA. 253

Amphicteis groenlandica,

,, invalida.

,, brevispinis.

„ acutifrons.
Polycirrus aurantiacus.
Sabella brevibarbis.
Serpula galeata.
Scenuris barbata.

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Beschreibungen neuer od. weniger bekannter Seesterne u. Seei-

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On the Mature Condition of Trichina spiralis. Q. J. Mic. Sc,

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Una monagrafia del genere Histiocephalus. lb., p. 507-514.

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Sulla metamorfosi regressiva di alcuni vermi rotondi. Plate.

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Un altro cenno sulle dentatura del Pachyodon Catulli. Plate.

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Una monografia del genere Spiroptera. "Wien. Sitz., 60.

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Bedfern, Peter. — On the Admixture of Nervous and Muscular Fibres
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Fly, in eight Letters, with Microscopic Illustrations, on 8 plates, by

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THE

NATURAL HISTORY REVIEW

QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF BIOLOGICAL SCIENCE.

%tvitw$<

XXVIII. -COLONIAL FLORAS.

1. Flora of tiie British "West Indian Islands. By A. H. R.

Grisebach, M.D., Professor of Botany in the University of
Grottingen. Published under the authority of H. M. Secretary
of State for the Colonies. Parts I.-III.

2. Flora Capensis: being a Systematic description of the Plants of the

Cape Colony, Caftraria, and Port Natal, by William Henry Harvey,
M.D., F.B.S., Professor of Botany in the University of Dublin,
&c. and Otto Wilhelm Sonder, Ph. D. of Hamburgh. Vol. I.

3. Exumeratio Plantarum Zetlanle : an Enumeration of Ceylon
Plants, with descriptions of the little known Genera and Species,
observations on their habitats, uses, native names, &c. by G-. H.
K. Thwaites, P.L.S., Director of the Royal Botanic Garden, Pera-
denia, Ceylon. Parts I.-III.

4. Flora Hong-Kongensis : a description of the Flowering Plants

and Ferns of the Island of Hong-Kong, by George Bentham,
Esq., V.P.L.S., with a Map of the Island. Published under the
authority of H. M. Secretary of State for the Colonies.

The object of this communication is to give publicity to the steps
now being taken, partly under the authority of the Secretary of
State for the Colonies, partly under that of some of the Colonial
Governments, and in some cases by -private individuals, to pro-
cure a series of good, but inexpensive, scientific works on the Ve-
getable productions of the British Colonies.

Up to the present time, it is believed, that there are (with the ex-
ception of three unfinished Floras, to which we shall hereafter refer)
but three of our foreign possessions whose plants have been pub-
lished in a cheap systematic form, available equally to the traveller,
the man of science, and the settler ; these are Aden, Gibraltar, and

VOL. I. — N. H. R. 2 L

256 reviews.

Hong-Kong! — all of them military stations rather than colonies, abso-
lutely without exports of any kind but sick troops, incapable of feed-
ing their own population, and enormously expensive to the mother
country. Of the first of these, an excellent Morula, containing
about 100 species, has been lately communicated by Dr. Anderson
(Acting Director of the Calcutta Botanic Garden) to the Lhmsean
{Society, and printed in its Journal. Of the Gibraltar Flora, a very
full enumeration, with notes and habitats, was published in 1816
by the late Dr. Kelaart, an intelligent surgeon in the army ; and
the Hong-Kong Flora is the first to be completed of that series of
Colonial Floras published under Government authority, whose rise
and progress will be here reviewed. This retrospect is not a very
encouraging one, considering the extent, population, wealth, resources
and products of England's boasted colonial possessions, the number
of Botanic Gardens they support, of Government botanists who have
been attached to them, of scientific expeditions that have explored
them, and of unpublished collections that have been accumulating
from them, in our Herbaria, for upwards of a century.

It is true that the Botany of several other colonies has been pub-
lished, including some of the more important, as that of British
North America, 30 years ago, in the " Flora Boreali- Americana,"
and more recently of Tasmania, New Zealand, and the Falkland
Islands, in the " Botany of Sir James Boss' Antarctic Yoyage ;" but
these are all of them very expensive, illustrated, quarto works, too
cumbrous and costly for the traveller, colonist, or man of science, and
too scientific for general use ; moreover they were not projected ex-
clusively or primarily for the benefit of the colonies, but were ordered
for publication by Government, on the recommendation of the Ad-
miralty or Colonial Office, as national contributions to abstract
science, and appendages to costly scientific expeditions, whose results,
in discoveries and collections, reflected honour on the country that
sent them forth.

In the colonies themselves, the want of suitable Floras, which, like
those of Great Britain, should be accessible to all, thoroughly trust-
worthy in a scientific point of view, and yet not so exclusively
scientific in method and language as to be useful to the professed man
of science only, has long been felt ; and has been commented upon by
Governors and colonists in official despatches and in various other
ways. Nor has the want been less felt in the mother country, whence
alone, in the present state of matters, can any information be obtained
by the colonist. Hence, owing very much to the incessant demands
made on the Director of the National Gardens at Kew, for the
names and uses of colonial plants, that officer has been led (as well
no doubt for his own sake, as for that of the countries to which the
garden and museum at Kew owe so much) warmly to espouse these
representations to the Heme Government, and to urge that the first
steps should be taken in this country, in which only can anything
effectually be done, to provide the colonies with the means of ascer-

COLONIAL FLORAS. 257

fcaining all that is known of their vegetable productions. In his an-
nual Reports to Parliament on the progress of the Garden and the
utility of the Museum, Herbarium and Library, as well as in his corre-
spondence with various Secretaries of State for the Colonies, the Direc-
tor of Kew Gardens has officially called attention to his opinion (an
opinion that has never been disputed) that it is a duty of the depart-
ment under his control, to provide all materials and facilities for con-
ducting such works efficiently ; adding, that the want of them is the
chief obstacle towards developing the productive resources of the
colonies, and furthering a scientific knowledge of their vegetation and
taste for its study ; and that they are indispensable for supplying
that fixed nomenclature for their plants, without which it is impos-
sible for himself or the colonists to carry on a correspondence on these
and kindred subjects.

Nor are other reasons wanting ; as the colonies increase in extent
and wealth, an upper class of settlers is evolved, whose intelligence
and education alike stimulate them to obtain a knowledge of the
plants of their native or adopted country, and who, appreciating the
value of a scientific training in developing the reasoning and observing
faculties, desire that their children should possess the means of being
thus trained in nature's school. Further, as the attractions of these
new provinces increase, and facilities for visiting them become greater,
many well educated men, travellers, tourists, and Government
servants, leave our shores for a temporary sojourn in the colonies,
and desire to take with them a suitable Flora. JSTor are practical
illustrations wanting of the loss we have suffered through ignorance
of our colonial productions, for it is a fact well known to exhibitors
and jurors, that a large proportion of the new and little known veget-
able products of the British foreign possessions, which were sent to
the Great Exhibition of 1851, were almost valueless, solely from
the want of any means of procuring reliable information concerning
them, or of giving them names by which they had already been recog-
nized, or could again be known. With regard to the timbers espe-
cially, of which the Indian and Colonial series were magnificent, the
same wood had sometimes many names in one country, and in the case
of the Australian woods, many had a different name in each contiguous
colony, or from each exhibitor in the same colony. In many cases the
names given were purely arbitrary, originating in a whim or blunder,
or in a mistaken idea of the resemblance of the tree producing it to
some better known timber tree.

Something more, however, was required to move the Government
to consider the subject, than the officially unsupported representa-
tions of a single scientific man ; whose exertions would have met with
little success but for the happy accident of a gentleman of scientific
attainments, in fact an excellent botanist, holding, for a short period,
the office of Parliamentary Secretary to the Colonics. This was
Mr. J. Ball, than whom no one better knew how much was wanted,
.and how much might be effected by a little timely aid from Govern-

258 REVIEWS.

ment, and who warmly took up the subject, so successfully re-
presenting to Mr. Labouchere, then Secretary of State for the
Colonies, the expediency and utility of such undertakings, that Sir
W. Hooker was desired to name a colony of which he thought it de-
sirable to publish a Mora, the extent of the work required, and the
author he would recommend to conduct it. After full deliberation
the British "West Indian Islands were selected for the experiment,
for the following reasons. The materials in Herbaria were pretty
complete and good ; Government Botanic Gardens exist at Jamaica
and Trinidad, for whose efficiency such a work was indispensable ;
great efforts were being made by the Governors of Jamaica, St. Kitts,
Dominica, and Trinidad, and by many intelligent colonists, to develop
the productive resources of those islands ; and lastly, in a scientific
point of view, the Flora was well worth working out, for since the
publication of Swartz's " Flora IndisB Occidentalis " in 1806, and
M'Fadyen's never completed Flora of Jamaica, no attempt had been
made, even to enumerate, the plants of any British "West Indian
Island.

The botanist, who, for his scientific attainments and special
knowledge of the vegetation of the Spanish Main, was selected as
author, is Dr. Grrisebach, Professor of Botany in G-oettingen, a
gentleman personally well known and highly esteemed amongst Eng-
lish Botanists, who has published on Carribean plants, and possesses
so perfect a command of English, as to be able to write the Flora in
that language. Three parts of Dr. Grisebach's Flora have already
appeared, and the fourth, nearly completing the Dicotyledonous orders,
is now in the press. The materials have hitherto been most carefully
and conscientiously worked up and described. The older Herbaria
of Patrick Brown, Sloane, and Swartz have been studied, the result of
which has been the fixing of many doubtful synonyms, and the reference
of numerous obscure and imperfectly known species to better known
ones, while much light has been thrown upon various obscure and inte-
resting plants. In various cases Dr. Grrisebach has established excellent
reforms in generic characters, has reduced (judiciously in most cases)
a number of doubtful and bad genera to subgenera and synonyms,
and, in short, has left the orders he has completed in a very satisfac-
tory state in a systematic and descriptive point of view. The defects
of the work are, the arrangement of the natural orders, in which Dr.
Grrisebach follows a sequence which is peculiar to himself, and presents,
as a whole, no advantage over those current amongst Botanists ; but
which is confusing to the beginner, who in all cases must have learnt
botany by some other method, and troublesome to the professed bota-
nist, who has to consult the index to find the place of every Dicotyle-
donous genus or order. The typographical arrangements too, are
not so good as they might be, the type being too small and crowded,
and the contractions too numerous. These latter, however, are ble-
mishes for which the author is not altogether responsible, as they arose
from a desire to reduce the price of the work to the smallest possible.

COLONIAL FLORAS. 259

sum at which a publisher would undertake to print and sell it ; a price
unfortunately fixed in the prospectus, before the amount of materials
could be accurately ascertained. In other respects, the Flora of the
British AVest Indian islands is highly creditable to its author and the
Government.

Soon after this, a second Colonial Flora — the " Flora Capensis"
of Drs. Harvey and Sonder, which will embrace the plants of all
Africa south of the Tropic of Capricorn — was begun on the same
general plan, but under very different auspices, and without any cer-
tain prospect of Grovernment aid. This was also brought about by the
representations of Sir AVilliam Hooker, who urged its prosecution on
its originator, Dr. Harvey, Professor of Botany at Dublin University,
and keeper of the Herbarium there, as a work of great utility, which
he was well qualified to undertake from his general attainments and
personal familiarity with the Flora of the Cape.* Dr. Harvey's
principal objection arose from the want of authentic specimens, some
of the most complete and best published South African collections
being on the Continent ; this was fortunately easily overcome, for
Dr. Sonder, of Hamburgh, the possessor of the best of these collec-
tions, a good botanist, and author of several valuable memoirs on
Cape plants, gladly accepted Dr. Harvey's offer to share the
authorship with himself. Dr. Harvey undertook to print and pub-
lish the Flora at his own risk and cost, trusting chiefly to colonial
subscriptions for a repayment of the outlay. These were liberally
accorded, and thanks to the exertions of the Governor, Sir George
Grey, and the Colonial Secretary, Eawson Eawson, Esq. a Parliamentary
grant was made by the Colony towards the expenses of the first
volume, and hopes were held out of its being continued to the suc-
ceeding ones.

The first volume of the Flora Capensis appeared in 1860, containing
all the Thalamifloral orders and the Calycifioral, down to Connaracecd ;
thus including some of the largest and most difficult Cape genera,
Pelargonium (containing 163 species), Oxalis (108), Agathosma
(97), and Hermannia (70), all apparently skilfully elaborated, much
improved by expunging bad species and reducing others to varieties,
and rendered comparatively easy of study by good analytical tables.
The volume includes about 1200 species, so that, as extratropical South
Africa is said to contain at least 12000, the work will be a very
extensive and laborious one : and but for the timely assistance of the
Colonial Government it could not have been proceeded with, the
authors having put a price on the volumes so low as to fall below the
cost of their production.

The scientific and typographical arrangements of the Flora
Capensis are for the most part excellent ; though in respect of loose-

* . Dr. Harvey held the office of Colonial Secretary of the Cape Colony between
1837 and 1S40, during which time he published, at Cape Town, his " Genera of
South African Plants/' a work now out of print.

260 REVIEWS.

ness of type and prodigality of paper, it tends to rim to the opposite
extreme to the West Indian Mora, which, considering the number of
volumes to which the work will extend, is certainly an evil. The
system of De Candolle is followed, the principal orders and genera
are preceded by analytic keys to their contained genera and species,
and the volume is prefaced by an excellent compendious introduc-
tion to Botany, and a glossary of terms, which are rigidly adhered to
throughout. Some defects are inevitable in a work carried on by
authors residing far apart and using different Herbaria for general
purposes : thus, in the treatment of genera and species which are
not endemic to the Cape; Dr. Harvey, who is a great traveller,
and possesses means of consulting larger Herbaria and more copious
suites of specimens, from more varied climates, than Dr. Sonder,
naturally tends to take broader views of their variations and dis-
tribution. Other defects, common to both, are the partial quotation
of numbered collections (the numbers of which should be always
quoted or always omitted), and the want of any geographical guide
to the localities so profusely referred to for the rarer species, or any
division of the enormous area whose plants are described, into na-
turally or artificially bounded districts. This is the more inexcusable, as
excellent divisions of this kind have been made by E. Meyer and Drege
in their "Zwei Pflanzengeographische Documente," distinguished
by physical boundaries, geographical and climatal, which illustrate
well many botanical features of South Africa. As it is, the impos-
sibility of finding in any Gazetteer or map, the villages, streams,
hills, and kraals quoted in the Flora Capensis, diminishes its value
for all higher purposes of botanical geography. Much might have
been done by indicating under the generic character, the general
range of the species, and we hope that the authors will accompany
the second volume with a sketch-map of the country, divided into
districts, and indicate under each species, by a letter or number, the
district to which it belongs.

Before concluding the subject of Dr. Harvey's labours in Colonial
Botany, it is only right to add that he is publishing, at his own cost,
fascicles of outline lithograph plates, drawn on stone by himself, and
descriptions of new, rare, and little known South African plants,
of which a volume with 100 illustrations has already appeared.

Another, also unaided, effort to develop a knowledge of the plants
of our Colonies, is the " Enumeratio Plantarum ZeylanisB " of Mr.
Thwaites, the accomplished Director of the Peradenia Botanic Gar-
den. On Mr. Thwaites' appointment to Ceylon in 1849, he found the
want of any guide to the indigenous plants of the island a most serious
drawback, to himself especially, who had no previous knowledge
of tropical botany ; moreover, he arrived about the time when those
energetic measures were being adopted by the Government and the
settlers, which have resulted in Ceylon rapidly rising to the position
of the most prosperous of our Eastern possessions. With the excep-
tion of Moon's indescribably bad catalogue of Ceylon plants (con-

COLONIAL FL0EA8. 2(51

taining not half the indigenous plants, and fully half of these wrongly
named) no work on the plants of the island had appeared, since the
days of Burmaim and Linnaeus, nor were there any means of study-
ing its Flora, except by aid of the expensive and always incomplete
Indian Floras, or the more voluminous general systemata of all
known plants. Fortunately a partially named, but incomplete, Ceylon
Herbarium had been formed at the Botanic Garden by Mr. Thwaites'
predecessors, Moon and Gardner ; this the new Director at once com-
menced to arrange, to increase by collecting himself and sending out
collectors, and to study with diligence, analysing the genera and com-
municating valuable papers on them to the Journal of Botany. He
also numbered and distributed the duplicates, sending the first set to
the Kew Herbarium, where they were named, and the corresponding
names returned to him. After eight years' labour, Mr. Thwaites com-
menced with these materials, his " Enumeratio," which contains the
names, with references to authorities, of all Singhalese plants, their lo-
calities, synonymy, native names and uses, notes where required, and
descriptions of all little known or new genera and species. The MS.
is sent as prepared, to Kew, and is printed and published in London.
The first number appeared in 1858, and the fourth, concluding the
Dicotyledons, is now in the press ; these are extremely carefully and
well done, especially considering that the author works so far from
the Libraries and Herbaria of Europe. It is to be hoped that it will
be speedily followed by a full Flora of Ceylon, on the plan of that
of the Cape of Good Hope, under the authority of the Home or
Colonial Government.

For the Australian Continent, much has been done by Dr. F.
Mueller, Director of the Botanic Gardens of Victoria, an able bota-
nist and distinguished traveller, the companion of Gregory in his
famous journey across tropical N.E. Australia, and himself the ex-
plorer of the Victorian Alps. Dr. Mueller's works not having ap-
peared in a systematic form, can only be cursorily alluded to here ;
they consist chiefly of descriptions of new genera and species, offi-
cial Eeports on the botanical results of his own travels and those of
other travellers, and miscellaneous papers scattered through many
Colonial and European Journals. He has also commenced an
elaborate " Flora of Victoria," in quarto, with numerous plates, full
of analyses, executed in the Colony : of this a few sheets and plates
have been privately communicated, judging from which it promises
to be a work of great elaboration and excellence. It is much to be
wished that Dr. Mueller's copious writings were reduced to a syste-
matic form, for at present, owing to the number of periodicals (many
of them ephemeral or insignificant) through which they are dispersed,
it is impossible to consult them satisfactorily.

Latterly a proposition has been laid by Sir "William Denison (the
enlightened Governor, lately of Australia, and now of Madras), before
the Secretary of State for the Colonies, for the publication of a series
of works illustrating all branches of Colonial Science — geography,

202 REVIEWS.

geology, mineralogy, meteorology, magnetism, zoology, and botany
— and quoting as an example the " Historia fisika e politica de
Chili " of the Chilian Government. It was proposed that the Home
and Colonial Governments should share the expenses, the former
finding collectors, observers, and collections, &c. and the latter under-
taking the plates, letter-press, publication and authorship. Sir W.
Denison's suggestion was referred by the Secretary for the Colonies
to the Royal Society, the Directors of the Geological Survey and of the
Royal Gardens, and to the Superintendent of the Natural History Col-
lections of the British Museum, to be reported upon by them. The
Botanical Beport is the only one with which this paper is concerned ;
it fully admitted the excellence and utility of the general plan, but fore-
saw many insuperable obstacles to the achievement of the botanical
portion, on the proposed scale of a quarto or folio work, illustrated with
beautiful coloured plates, to which alone the Australian Colonies
would be disposed to contribute : these were, that the expense would
be enormous, Australia alone containing about 8000 species of plants ;
the time required would not fall short of half a century ; the earlier
volumes would be antiquated before the middle and later appeared ;
there was no prospect of securing the services of a succession of
scientific botanists and artists who would co-operate in producing a
work, of which the scientific results would be small compared with
the labour and anxiety of superintendence ; no publisher would under-
take the series, except the Government were at the whole cost of pro-
ducing it ; the price and bulk would place it beyond the reach of any
but a few wealthy individuals and public libraries : and, what appears
a stronger objection than all these, is that the inexpensive, portable,
practical Floras, which should be precursors to such magnificent
works, would be indefinitely postponed. The Director of Kew Gardens,
therefore, concluded by again urging on the Home Government the
prosecution of the Colonial Floras, which would meet the principal ob-
ject Sir William Denison had in view, as far as botany was concerned,
proposing that it be left to the wealthy colonies themselves to provide
the " ouvrages de luxe," whose extent, scope, and practicability could
not even be estimated in the present rude condition of Colonial
Botany. The expediency of this middle course was at once recog-
nized by his Grace the Duke of Newcastle, who immediately gave in-
structions that a definite plan should be submitted to him, embracing
Floras of all the Colonies, stating what had been done towards each,
and what remained to be done, together with the probable expendi-
ture of time and money, which their preparation would occupy.

The reply embodied much curious information regarding the state
of Colonial Botany, and many suggestions as to the best means of
securing to the public the uniformity, cheapness, and completeness of
the Floras. These were considered under the three heads of collec-
tion of materials, authorship and publication. "With regard to the
first, it was shown that ample materials existed for very good practical
Floras of the largest colonies, but that it would be necessary to send

COLONIAL FLORAS. 2G3

collectors to others, or wait till they were better explored by settlers
or travellers. In the matter of authorship it was proposed, that the
authors should be paid at a uniform rate, according to the amount of
work contained in the Flora undertaken ; the remuneration to include
all expenses of authorship and correcting the press, and to be paid on
the publication of each volume. Lastly, with regard to publication,
after consulting some of the most eminent London publishers, it was
found that no one would undertake to issue and advertise the series
at a cheap rate, except a sale of at least 100 copies were guaranteed
on the day of publication ; and it was therefore proposed that these
should be subscribed for by Government, for its own use, under the
conditions that the selling price to the public did not exceed 20s a
volume of 500 Svo. pages, containing about 1000 to 1200 species of
plants. It will be observed that, under these terms, the author and
publisher are entirely independent, each responsible to Government
alone, and that complication of pecuniary interests is avoided, which
has proved fatal to various publications patronized by Government.

The above calculations were irrespective of illustrations ; these
however, of a plain useful character, might be issued independently of
the letterpress, at a cheap rate, in Svo. provided they were executed
in outline lithograph ; they would cost about 20s each, for artist's
work, to Government, and be sold at l\d each, without loss to the
publisher, who would provide printing, paper, binding, &c. It was
proposed that 50 such should accompany each volume, or be sold
separately at the option of the purchaser.

Then followed a list of the Colonies, with the probable number of
flowering plants they contain, which are nearly as follows :

1. South Africa, including Natal, 12,000 species (now publishing

by Drs. Harvey and Sonder, under the auspices of the Colo-
nial Government.)

2. Australia, including Tasmania . . . 8000

3. British North America, (Canada, Newfoundland,

Nova Scotia, and British Columbia) . . 3000

4. West Indian Islands (now publishing by Dr. Grisebach) 2500

5. New Zealand .... 1000
G. Ceylon ..... 2500
7. Hong-Kong (published by Mr. Bentham) . . 1000

*8. Mauritius and the Seychelles . . . 1000

*9. British Guiana .... 2500

*10. Honduras .... 1500?

*I1. "West African Colonies \ . . 2000

*12. Ionian Islands, Malta, Gibraltar . ) 1500

13. Ascension, St. Helena and Tristan d'Acunha J 150

(Heligoland, the Falkland Islands, and Labuan were not included.)
These could easily be comprised in thirty 8vo. volumes of about
500 pages each, and the total cost to Government would be only
£150. per volume, without plates, and £200. with plates, exclusive
of the purchase of copies for its own use ; the price to tlie public
vol. i.— jr. n. r. 2 m

26i REVIEWS.

would be 15s to 20s each volume, without plates, and 20s to 25s, with
plates.

The Colonies marked with a star, all require to be explored by
collectors previous to the publication of their Moras ; the others might
be commenced forthwith.

To secure uniformity of plan, and due attention on the part of
the authors to the convenience of the public and requirements of
the Colonies, the following instructions for their guidance were drawn
up at Kew, and after being submitted for approval to several expe-
rienced Botanists, have been adopted with regard to the only Flora
hitherto published, that of Hong-Kong.

" The Floras of the British Colonies are to contain concise and
" characteristic descriptions of all Phamogamic plants and Ferns
" known to inhabit the several Colonies. These descriptions to be
" drawn up in English, from the actual examination of all available
" specimens, by the authors severally selected for the purpose.*

" Each Flora to commence with an analytical table of the Natural
" Orders it comprises, containing the most prominent differential cha-
" racters only, as exemplified in the species representing the order in
" that particular Flora.

" Under each Natural Order, after a concise ordinal character,
" drawn up with special reference to its representatives within the
" Flora, there shall follow a note of its distribution and such observa-
" tions as may be necessary to facilitate its recognition, or to under-
" stand its limits and affinities ; and following these, an analytical
" table of its contained genera, when more than one.

" In like manner, under each genus, the generic character and dis-
" tribution, &c. will be followed by an analytic table of the species,
" when more than one.

" Under each species will be given,

" 1. The description above mentioned.

"2. A select synonymy, with especial reference to works already
" published on the Colony, and to one work where the general syno-
" nymy, or a more detailed account of the species may be found.

" The localities of the species, in more or less detail, according to
" the extent of the country it inhabits, together with the name of its
" discoverer or collectors when of unusual occurrence.

" An abstract of the extra- colonial range of the species.

" A notice of its economic value in arts, manufactures or medicine,
" where necessary. A general list of such useful species with their
" nature and colloquial names, when of sufficient importance, will be
" appended to each Flora.

" The plants to be arranged under the Natural Orders contained

* In the case of certain genera or even families, it may be found desirable that
they should be described by Botanists eminent for their knowledge of that particular
group, rather than by the author of the special Flora in which they occur. In all
such cases the selection of an author must be authoritatively sanctioned.

COLONIAL FLOIIAS. 265

" in an enumeration with which each author will be supplied, and
" in the sequence there given. Should a genus be removed from the
" order in which it is placed in the works of De Candolle or Endlicher,
I* it is to be referred to under the order from which it is removed.

" The form, size, type, paper, punctuation, &c, are to be uniform
" throughout the series, with that adopted for the first Flora, pub-
V lished under the above regulations ; Mr. Bentham's Flora of Hong-
" Kong.

" A short compendium of Systematic and Descriptive Botany, in-
" eluding a Glossary of necessary technical terms, for the instruction
" of the Colonists, as well as for the guidance of the authors, will be
" issued with each Mora and be applicable to them all.* No tech-
" nical terms are to be employed in the Floras, but such as are
" contained in this Glossary, nor are they to be used in any other
" sense than what is there indicated.

" On the completion of each Flora a brief introduction is to be ap-
" pended by the author, and to contain a full acknowledgment of the
" kind and amount of assistance received during its preparation ; an
" abstract of the labours of previous authors on that Flora ; a notice
" of the principal collectors who have explored the Colony, and of
" the parts of it most requiring further examination.

" It will be at the option of each author, to add any general
" matter on the nature of the Flora, with reference to its peculiarities,
" and to those of other countries. All such matter must be officially
" sanctioned before publication, and must not so add to the extent of
" the volume as to raise its price above that determined upon by
" Government.

" All the plants of the several Colonies that exist in the Herbaria
" of Kew, are to be examined, and this, and when necessary other
" Herbaria, are to be referred to under each species. A reference to
" the name adopted, and to the page of the Flora, will also be added to
" each species so examined in the Kew Herbarium.

" The authors will be further required to consult such public or
" private Herbaria during the preparation of the Floras, as shall be in-
" cheated by the Director of the series previous to its commencement."

Such have been the steps taken and means employed to induce the
Government to undertake a work of acknowledged public utility, and
whose desirability is vouched for by the concurrent testimony of the
Home Government, Colonial Governors and Colonists, independently
of men of science ; one too, the total expense of which could never
exceed two or three hundred pounds a year, and this for a very limited
period. It will, however, surprise no one at all acquainted with the
working of our public departments to hear, that though the final
plan above detailed, was called for and approved upwards of a year and

* This has been prepared by Mr. Bentham, and is issued with the Hong-Kong
Flora; Dr. Harvey's Cape Flora contains one that has been revised by Mr. Bentham,
and hardly differs from it in practical application.

206 KEVIEWS.

a half ago, the only result has been the aforesaid Flora of Hong-Kong,
and that this would not have been produced, but for the following very
exceptional circumstances. That Flora happens to be scientifically,
(though not in any other respect) very interesting, and has long been
a favourite study of our most eminent systematist, Mr. Bentham ;
who published much upon it several years ago in the Kew Journal of
Botany. Since that period it has been largely increased by various
collectors, and especially by the naturalists of the American Explor-
ing Expedition, whose collections were sent to Mr. Bentham for
elucidation ; these were worked up by him, together with all others,
into a general catalogue, with numerous notes and descriptions, and sent
for publication to the Smithsonian Institution of "Washington, in the
United States of America, for lack of any means of publishing them
in this country. On this fact becoming known to the projector of
the Colonial Floras, he at once represented the facts to the Secretary
of State for the Colonies, through J. F. Elliot, Esq., the Assistant
Under-Secretary, a gentleman who has throughout most actively
interested himself in this undertaking. He pointed out that Hong-
Kong was one of the series indicated in his Eeport, and strongly
urged the propriety of requesting Mr. Bentham to recal his manu-
script, and embody it in a Colonial Flora, which would thus form the
first of the series. Happily this suggestion was acceded to, the Smith-
sonian Institution most generously gave up the MS., though two
sheets had been printed, and in six months afterwards the Flora of
Hong-Kong appeared, in which the general plan detailed above is
carried out in all particulars.

Very lately, the propriety of continuing the series was again re-
presented to the Government, and the Duke of Newcastle placed in
the estimate for his department, the small sum necessary to proceed
with the Australian Flora, for which it was most desirable to secure
Mr. Bentham's services ; but the Lords Commissioners of the Trea-
sury refused the grant, on the ground of the Australian Colonies
having shown a sufficient sense of their interest in science and com-
merce, to warrant the execution of their Flora being left to their own
enterprize. We are not so surprised at this reply, when we con-
sider the magnificence of the proposal on the part of the Australian
Government in regard to illustrated works ; but, on the other hand,
this answer applies to two only of the seven Australian Colonies, and
considering how largely the mother country is benefited by develop-
ing the resources of its dependencies, it appears undignified to withhold
the trifling contribution required for the purpose. In the meantime,
steps are being taken to induce the Australian Colonies themselves
to sanction the Flora, and there can be no doubt but they will do as
much, at the very least, as the Cape Grovernment has done.

As the matter now stands, however, the Hong-Kong Flora is the
only result of this " Mons parturiens," whose labours it is to be hoped
are only begun.

BROWN-SEQUARD ON THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM. 267

XXIX.— Course oe Lectures on the Physiology and Patho-
logy of the Central Nervous System. Delivered at the Royal
College of Surgeons of England, in May, 1858, by C. E. Brown-
Sequard, M.D., F.K.S., &c. &c. London. Williams and Norgate.
8vo. pp. 276, 1860.

" These Lectures contain the results of the work of almost all my
life, since I began to study medicine,''' so says Dr. Brown- Sequard
in his preface : those, therefore, who have studied the numerous
memoirs of this able Physiologist, will expect to find little absolutely
new in the pages of this book. That large class of readers, however,
whose varied occupations prevent them from following such investi-
gations through the reports of societies and the pages of periodicals,
will be glad to find embodied in one volume, the most important
results of the labour of Dr. Brown-Sequard's life. Since the year
1S38, Dr. Brown- Sequard, has devoted all his disposable time to the
study of the great questions connected with the physiology of the
nervous centres. How vast, during this period, have the changes
been in the aspects of many of these questions ; how different the
views put forward both as to the minute structure and functions of
the nervous centres; how discordant the opinions of the ablest micro-
scopists ; how inconclusive the reasoning of various physiologists ! All
this shows, at least, the amazing intricacies and difficulties which
surround the subject, and when we look to the records of the past,
and contemplate the alterations which we are now forced to make
concerning opinions and views, which some twenty or thirty years
ago were regarded as perfectly established, we indeed perceive the
folly of attempting to dogmatize upon such questions. If we turn to
the ' Eeport on the Physiology of the Nervous system,' presented to
the British Association at its Cambridge meeting in 1833, by Dr.
"W. C. Henry, of Manchester, we find that although this was the work
of a most careful and accomplished gentleman, many theories were
assumed by him as having been at that time unquestionably proved,
which are now overturned. In the concluding recapitulation of that
report, as among the "most important facts that have been/idly
ascertained in the physiology of the nervous system," the author
asserts, that the function of the spinal cord is simply that of a con-
ductor of motive impulses from the brain to the nerves supplying the
muscles, and of sensitive impressions from the surface of the body to
the sensorium commune ; and that these two vital offices reside in
distinct portions of the spinal medulla, the propagation of motion in
its anterior columns, the transmission of sensations in its posterior
columns. How changed upon this subject are the ideas of to-day !

Before entering upon an analysis of the opinions of Dr. Brown-
Sequard, on the physiology of this nervous centre (the spinal cord),
it may not be amiss to state what other views have been put forward,

268 ItEYIEWS.

and what generally accepted, since Sir Charles Bell propounded that
which was adopted, as fully ascertained, by Dr. Henry in the report
jnst alluded to. We need not do more than mention in the most
cursory way the experiments of Fodera, who on dividing one poste-
rior column of the spinal cord, in the cervical region, produced loss of
feeling in the opposite side, and loss of movement in the same, and
who on repeating the same experiment in the lumbar region obtained
results diametrically opposite : or those of Backer, who on cutting
across the posterior columns observed a destruction of both feeling
and motion in the posterior limbs ; or of Sehoeps, who, on repeating
the same experiment, thought that he found sensibility persisting and
motion destroyed, in the posterior extremities.

The views of Bellingeri, that the anterior columns of the spinal
cord are a bundle of nerve fibres animating the flexor muscles, and
that the posterior columns contain the nerve fibres animating the ex-
tensor muscles, are more deserving of a critical investigation, because,
in these later times, they have been, to a certain extent, adopted by
a person of acknowledged ability, the learned Professor Valentin.
The now modified notions of M. Moritz SchifF, who " holds that the
grey matter transmits along the cord painful impressions, while
simple tactile impressions are conveyed along the posterior columns,
must not be forgotten. Nor can we pass over in silence the state-
ments of Professor Schroeder van der Kolk, that, in his opinion, the
grey matter in the spinal cord serves solely for motion, the posterior,
rather for reflex action and the co-ordination of movements, whilst
sensation is transmitted upwards through the posterior and lateral
medullary columns. The opinion of the last named Professor is the
more deserving of criticism, in as much as his work is universally
in the hands of British readers ; yet we confess, that we are quite at
a loss to understand the reasoning on which his opinions are founded:
he, indeed, draws his conclusions especially from the phenomena
produced by strychnia in a dog, but his line of argument appears to
us so entirely inconclusive, that we are almost forced to infer that
there is some typographical error in the expression of his opinion as
above stated. If it be not so, then indeed a very useful lesson is to
be drawn from the deductions of the learned Professor ; we are taught
how very dangerous it is to hang physiological theories upon a frame-
work, such as the anatomist sees, or fancies he sees, in the structures
of the nervous centres. But it will become our duty further on to
analyse the reasonings of Prof. Schroeder van der Kolk, when com-
paring them with those of Brown- Sequard.

Passing from these, as we may call them, subordinate theories
concerning the precise functions of the various tracts of the spinal
cord, we come to the two great rivals, which have for some time
struggled, with varying success, for acceptance before the leading
Physiologists of Europe, \iz. that of Sir Charles Bell, as modified by
M. Longet, which had been generally adopted in Prance and England,

E-ROWX-SEQUAIiD OW THE CENTRAL NEBYOTJS SYSTEM. 2G9

and that for the most part admitted in Germany, and, with many
minor modifications, adopted by Van Deen, Valentin, Stilling, and
others.

The theory of Sir Charles Bell, as modified and completed by
Longet, has been, until quite recently, so generally accepted in this
country, and is so universally known that it is hardly necessary to
state it. In brief, upon this theory, the spinal marrow is regarded at
once as a nervous centre enjoying an activity of its own, and as a
conductor intended to place the muscles, the surface and various
organs in connexion with the encephalon ; this double function is con-
sidered as due to the two kinds of substance which enter into its com-
position. As a centre, it is a producer of reflex phenomena, which
property is due to the grey matter, a substance supposed to be
devoid of the power of conveying either sensitive impressions, or man-
dates of the will, to muscles ; the conducting faculty resides entirely
in the white substance of the columns of the cord ; the posterior
columns are regarded as being destined exclusively for the transmis-
sion of sensitive impressions to the encephalon, while, on the con-
trary, the anterior and lateral columns are the sole channels through
which the influence of the will is conveyed to muscles. In other
words, the posterior columns and their corresponding nerve roots are
regarded as centripetal conductors ; the anterior and lateral columns,
with the anterior nerve roots, as centrifugal conductors, while the grey
matter is the dynamical, or force generating, element of this nervous
centre. The human mind loves systems, and it found in this theory
something so simple and so seductive as to be almost irresistible.
Yet now it must be set aside, and recorded in the history of physi-
ology with many other brilliant, but deceptive, doctrines.

Van Deen has propounded, and Valentin, Stilling, and others have,
with various modifications, adopted, a theory in one respect funda-
mentally differing from the foregoing ; they assign to the grey matter
the function of conducting impressions. According to Stilling,
whose beautiful researches in anatomy, physiology and pathology
have done so much for science, the posterior half of the grey sub-
stance of the spinal marrow is the channel for the transmission of
sensitive impressions to the encephalon. Moreover, according to his
theory, there is no determinate and invariable course for sensitive
impressions, which may pass equally well by either lateral portions of
grey matter already indicated. Indeed, • Stilling holds that a very
small portion of the grey matter is still sufficient to permit the trans-
mission of sensitive impressions coming from parts situated behind
the lesion. Although this theory cannot at the present time be
accepted as exact, yet it will be found that it contains important
elements of truth, in assigning to the grey matter conducting power.

It is a remarkable instance of how much may be done by bold
assertion, even when altogether unsupported by facts, that it has
been so generally believed that the grey matter is devoid of the

270 REVIEWS.

power of conducting impressions, and that its true function is
dynamical — that it is destined to produce nerve force. A moment's
reflection serves to show that every nerve, after separation from the
cerebro- spinal axis, nevertheless contains in itself the elements neces-
sary to originate the vis nervosa, or neurility, as it has been very well
named, for this force may be called into being by the excitation of
ever so small a portion of such a nerve by electrical, chemical or
mechanical stimulation. On the other hand, however much the
minute anatomist may have failed to point out precisely what becomes
of the roots of the nerves ; whatever discrepancies may exist among
the researches of Hannover, Stilling, Eigenbrodt, Blattmann, Kolliker,
Wagner, Lockhart Clarke, Schilling, Gratiolet, Owsjannikow,
Schroeder van der Kolk, Bidder, Remak, Kupfer, and others ; the
great majority of these anatomists, at least, agree that a great number
of the fibres from the posterior nerve roots pass directly into the
grey substance. In this fact alone, we have good anatomical evidence
that the grey matter is connected with the transmission of sensitive
impressions. "We find likewise strong presumptive evidence to the
same effect, in the circumstance that so many most skilful experi-
mentalists, engaged in investigations quite independently of each
other, and differing in some respects widely from one another, have
nevertheless agreed in attributing to the grey matter some share in
the transmission of sensitive impressions : the hypothesis of Marshall
Hall has nothing in it directly at variance with such a supposition ;
that of Todd and Bowman assumes that all nerves are implanted in
the grey matter, and do not pass beyond it, and that the segments of
the cerebro-spinal axis are connected with each other through the
continuity of the grey matter ; while Bellingeri, Valentin, Schiff, Van
Deen, Yolkmann, Stilling, and other physiologists, are led by their
experiments, however contradictory in other respects, to grant to
the grey matter conducting power.

The greater part of Dr. Brown- Sequard's lectures are devoted to
an attempt to determine with scientific precision, what are the exact
channels in the spinal cord and medulla oblongata through which
sensitive impressions are transmitted and through which the influ-
ence of the will is conveyed to muscles ; in making this attempt, Dr.
Brown- Sequard has recourse to experimental investigation on ani-
mals, while he also tries to corroborate the conclusions thus arrived
at by reference to pathological cases ; and even those who may not
regard his arguments as in all respects conclusive, we venture to assert,
will not peruse his book without admitting that he gives a masterly
analysis of the pathological cases bearing upon these questions,
which he has collected from the most varied sources, with so much
labour and so much care. As an experimentalist, he has disproved
the assertion of one of the most eminent physiologists that these
islands has ever produced, that " direct experiments afford no aid
in determining the functions of the columns of the spinal cord." "We

BROWN- SEQUARD ON THE CENTRAL NERYOUS SYSTEM. 271

freely admit that attempts to expose this organ either in living or
dead animals are surrounded with difficulties, which embarrass the
experimenter, and weaken the force of his inferences. The depth at
which the spinal cord is situated in most vertebrate animals, its
extreme excitability, the intimate connections of its various parts with
one another, so that one can scarcely be irritated without the others
being affected, the proximity of the roots of its nerves to each other,
the difficulty of stimulating one portion of the cord itself without
affecting either the anterior or posterior roots, are great impediments
to accurate experiments : and when we consider these difficulties, we
see a sufficient explanation of the discrepancies which are apparent in
the recorded results of experiments, undertaken by so many able
observers.

But these difficulties, great though they unquestionably are, are not
insurmountable ; they reflect, indeed, great honour upon him who has
done so much to overcome them, but they also teach how slow we
ought to be in admitting proofs upon this subject, drawn from experi-
mental sources ; and with what caution and care we should examine
the tests to which such experimental enquiries have been submitted,
before we can accord to their results, as stated by any investigator,
our sanction and belief. The tests to which the fundamental ex-
periments of Dr. Brown- Sequard have been submitted have been
of the most trying nature ; his ideas as to the channels through which
sensitive impressions and motive commands pass, came before a scep-
tical public, saturated with very different notions, and his experiments
have been repeated before large audiences of such persons at various
places in these islands. The more sceptical of Iris hearers (ourselves
among the number) have made careful autopsies of the animals upon
which he had operated, previously hardening the spinal cords in spirit ;
and not a few have, like ourselves, repeated his experiments with
success. Physiologists whose theoretic views do not harmonize with
those of Dr. Brown- Sequard, and who therefore, may have been pre-
sumed to have undertaken them in a critical, if not an antagonistic,
spirit, have had the candour to confess that their ideas have been
modified by a repetition of these experiments : # and, moreover, his
principal assertions and experiments have passed with approval, through
the severe ordeal of a commission, appointed by the Societe de Biologic,
and composed of MM. CI. Bernard, Bouley, P. Broca, Griraldes,
G-oubaux, and Yulpian. At page 42 of his lectures Dr. Brown-
Sequard himself observes in a note,

" I must say, that it is absolutely impossible to know, while we make a section
of parts of the spinal cord, what is the precise depth of the injury; it is mere guess
work. But if we study well the phenomena, and then after having killed the animal,
if Ave put the spinal cord in alcohol, we render it hard, and we can ascertain exactly

* Compare Schroeder van der Kolk, On the minute structure and functions of
the spinal cord — translated from the original. Sydenham Society, 1859, page
51, note.

YOL. I. — N. H. R. 2 N

272 BEVIEWS.

what is the extent of the lesion. This is the means that I always employ in my ex-
periments, and it is also the means employed by the Committee appointed by the
Societe de Biologic, for the investigation of my researches on the spinal cord."

"We think then, that notwithstanding the great and admitted diffi-
culties which surround experimentation on the spinal cord, much
weight must be given to testimony derived from results tested by so
rigid a process. In his second lecture, Dr. Brown- Sequard details
the experiments by which he hopes to prove that the transmission
of sensitive impressions in the spinal cord, takes place chiefly in its
central part, i. e. in the grey matter; and in the following discourse, he
enters upon those which show that the conductors of sensitive impres-
sions from the various parts of the trunk and limbs, make their decus-
sation in the spinal cord, and not in the encephalon, as had been
generally supposed. He commences by proving that the theory of
Longet, with regard to the posterior columns of the cord being the
conductors of sensitive impressions, is no longer tenable ; he carries on
the work of destruction commenced by Sir Charles Bell himself,
vigorously urged on by the serious objections brought up against this
hypothesis by Dr. B. B. Todd, supported more recently by the beau-
tiful anatomical researches of Stilling and Lockhart Clarke, and now
completed by his own experiment, showing that a transverse section
of the posterior columns, far from being followed by any loss of feeling
is accompanied by the very reverse effect. So far as the posterior
columns are concerned, this single experiment annihilates the fasci-
nating theory of Longet, which won its way so speedily into full
notoriety, and was so charmingly seductive, because "it was so
orderly a plan and made people remember." But it had no facts to
rest upon.

If, says our author, the transmission of sensitive impressions does
not take place along the posterior columns, it remains to be found
what is the channel of their transmission. Is it the grey matter, or
some part of the lateral or anterior columns, or all, or several, of these
constituents of the spinal cord ? "When the anterior columns alone
are divided there is no marked alteration of sensibility. Trans-
verse section of the two lateral columns, in the dorsal region, does not
diminish, but increases, sensibility in the posterior limbs, while sensi-
bility is lost in these parts when the entire spinal cord, with the ex-
ception of one lateral column, is divided transversely ; hence, it seems
that sensitive impressions are not transmitted through these channels.
It is quite different with regard to the grey matter.

A transverse section of the posterior half of the spinal marrow is
attended with diminished sensibility in the posterior extremities, but as
we already know that this loss of sensibility is not attributable to the
division of the posterior, and the portions of the lateral, columns thus
unavoidably divided, it 'seems necessarily to be due to the division of
the grey matter. Again, transverse section of the anterior half of
the spinal cord is also attended with diminished sensibility ; but, since

BROWN-SEQTTARD ON THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM. 273

we know that this loss is not attributable to the division of the
anterior columns and of the portions of the lateral columns, it
seems again that it must be due to the division of the grey matter.
Lastly, if the anterior, lateral and posterior columns are divided
transversely, at a little distance from each other, sensibility persists
behind the sections, the grey matter being the only channel which
remains for its propagation towards the encephalon. As, in this ex-
periment, it is impossible not to divide some of the grey matter, sen-
sibility is found diminished, but not destroyed. If one can feel
thoroughly satisfied as to these facts, there can be no doubt respect-
ing the inference, that sensitive impressions pass, principally, along
the grey matter in the spinal cord. Dr. Brown-Sequard, however,
does not negative the notion of Calmeil and Nonat, that the an-
terior columns have a share in this function, for he has found, that
when the entire spinal cord has been cut across, leaving only the
anterior columns, sensibility, which is at first lost, after a time re-
appears, and many hours afterwards evidently exists everywhere,
though in a slight degree only ; he therefore concludes that these
columns have a share, but only a slight one, in the transmission of
sensitive impressions to the sensorium.

It is not our intention here to enter into any analysis of the
many and interesting, pathological cases adduced by Dr. Brown- Se-
quard in his fifth, sixth, seventh and eighth lectures, in support of the
views which experimental enquiry has led him to adopt. There is
one, however, which bears so pointedly upon the question of the
conducting power of the grey matter for sensitive impressions that
we cannot forbear giving it at full length : —

Case 22. A man, aged 44, after having had cramps, formication and weak-
ness in the lower limbs, and paralysis of the upper limbs, for a long period, was
admitted at La Charlie. Sensibility existed everywhere. On the evening of No-
vember 1st he was able to walk, but aided by some one. ' Sensibility continued
everywhere to the last moment before his death on the 3rd of November at 3 a.m.

Autopsy. Encephalon normal. There was induration of the spinal cord from
its upper extremity to the third dorsal vertebra, and from the sixth dorsal to the
lower extremity. The tissue of the cord in these parts being cut, was shining,
looking like porcelain, hard and difficult to be crushed. The grey matter was also
a little harder than normally, but of its usual colour. The anterior and posterior
roots seemed normal. In the space between the third and sixth dorsal vertebras, the
cord was softened, pultaceous, resembling a whitish, or rather, slightly rose, pulp,
punctuated in some places. When placed in water many parts became disintegrated
and formed a kind of emulsion. This alteration existed only in the white sub-
stance. The grey, on the contraiy, seemed to have preserved its normal consistence.
The microscope showed that the grey matter in both the softened and indurated
parts contained normal cells and fibres, and normal blood-vessels, while the white sub-
stance in the softened region, contained but rare fibres, which were altered, contain-
ing an oily matter and granulations. There was also a quantity of granulated
corpuscles of inflammation, with many capillaries, oily drops and amorphous matter;
in the indurated white substance, there was less alteration and the fibres were more
normal and numerous. (Laboulbene in the Memoires cle la Societe de Biologie,
1855.) The author of the report of this case adds that he has ascertained that
sensibility to pinching, pricking, touching, tickling, feeling of heat and cold, and

274 REVIEWS.

that due to the muscular spasm caused by galvanism persisted in this patient,
although the white matter, L e. the posterior and antero-lateral columns had but
few and altered fibres remaining."

It is obvious from what has been already brought forward, that va-
rious physiologists have had, for a long time past, a tendency to adopt
the two propositions so clearly enunciated, and so well discussed by Dr.
Brown- Sequard. The slow accumulation of well observed pathological
cases, careful microscopic investigation and experimental researches
(which although often contradictory, yet on the whole tended in the
same direction), have paved the way for the general acceptance of these
conclusions : viz., that sensitive impressions do not pass along the
posterior columns, but that the grey matter is the main channel for
their transmission to the encephalon. It would be foreign to our
purpose to enter into any critical discussion of the views of those who,
at the present time, dissent from those propositions, but we conceive
that it is right to do so with, regard to one author, because his opi-
nions come before the British public with much prestige, and because
not only the justly great reputation of the author as a microscopical
anatomist, but also the fact of his work having been selected (and
very rightly so) for publication, by the Council of the New Syden-
ham Society, give in the eyes of many readers very great, perhaps
undue weight and authority to his opinions.

" In my opinion," says Professor Schroeder van der Kolk, " the grey matter
in the spinal cord serves solely for motion, the posterior rather for reflex action, and
the coordination of movement, while sensation is transmitted upwards exclusively
through the posterior and lateral medullary columns. That such is the case I in-
ferred especially from the phenomena produced by strychnine in a dog; in slighter
attacks the hind feet acted first, and subsequently continued more rigid, the animal
standing upon them, with the body inclined obliquely forward. Not only during
these convulsions, but even when the animal lay more than once upon the ground,
with its feet stretched out in tetanic rigidity, it had not lost consciousness, of which
my audience were witnesses with me; thus when a white cloth was accidentally drawn
from one side of the apartment to the other, the dog followed it with his eyes and
head, while it appeared from all that occurred that he did not experience the least
pain. We also know that after excessive doses of strychnia, the patients without
feeling anything, are suddenly seized with abnormal movements and convulsions.
After the death of the dog I examined the spinal cord and brain, chiefly with a
view to discover any congestion which might have existed in the several parts ; in
the brain I met no unusual degree of congestion, but I was particularly struck with
a remarkable condition of the grey matter of the lumbar bulb ; it presented in fact,
numerous small effusions of blood, while in the medullary portion ( ?) nothing ab-
normal was found. In another dog, killed under the influence of strychnine, I found,
in the grey matter of the lumbar portion, aneurysmal dilatation of the capillary
vessels, which were, in consequence, on the verge of bursting. Perhaps similar effu-
sions had taken place in this instance, but that in the sections I prepared I had not
met with them. In both cases, however, the two horns of grey matter were most
beautifully injected with blood, as was evident after the sections were dried and
placed under Canada balsam. Hence it would appear that, after the administration
of strychnine, great congestion and irritation take place in the grey matter, which
in the situations where they are most fully developed, as in the loins, may pass into
effusion or dilatation of the blood-vessels, and still all this occurs without any sen-
sations, without any pain. Were the grey matter in the spinal cord sensitive, or did

BEOWX-SEQUARD ON THE CENTRAL NERYOUS SYSTEM. 275

the sensitive nerves penetrate into the grey matter, such congestion or irritation, as
excites in a sensitive nerve itself the most intense pain, could not be conceived to
exist without occasioning some sensation. Hence it follows also that reflex move-
ments cause no pain nor sensation in the spinal cord, so that, by this observation, the
direct ascent of the sensitive nerves in the spinal cord— of which I possess the most
satisfactory preparations — is physiologically or pathologically, if we will, confirmed."

Any one who carefully peruses the foregoing passage will perceive
in itself, without reference to other contradictory portions of the
book, the insufficiency of Professor Schroeder van der Kolk's argu-
ment as regards the physiological properties of the spinal marrow.
In the main it comes to this ; the grey matter is itself not sensitive,
it is therefore inconceivable that it can conduct sensitive impressions :
or again, a nerve which conveys sensitive impressions is itself very
sensitive to pain, the grey matter is not sensitive to pain, therefore
it cannot convey sensitive impressions. There is not the least ground
for admitting such an inference ; to be sensitive to pain and to be
capable of conveying sensitive impressions are distinct functions, not
of necessity co-existing in the same parts of the nervous system ; be-
cause they co-exist in the nerves of the trunk and limbs, it does not
follow the same should necessarily be the case in the grey matter ; it
certainly cannot be granted as an assumption, indeed several consi-
derations lead one to the very reverse conclusion. We know for in-
stance that the optic nerve, which undoubtedly conveys impressions
received from light, is itself not sensitive when cut or punctured, or
at least, if sensitive at all, very slightly so : we have ourselves known
of a case in which the optic nerve was, by a curious accident, punc-
tured ; there was instant loss of vision, but no pain referrible to the
optic nerve, nor was the sensation of a flash of light, said to follow
the lesion of this nerve, perceived by the individual. Until, there-
fore, Professor Schroeder van der Kolk adduces some facts in support
of his assumption, his argument cannot be admitted to have any real
value.

With reference to the decussation of sensitive impressions in the
spinal marrow and the determination, with precision, of the exact seat
of this decussation, we think the experiments of Dr. Brown- Sequard
lead to conclusions, if possible more definite, than any of his other re-
searches. It has been known, indeed, for centuries, that the conductors
of sensitive impressions, as well as those of the impulses of the will
to muscles, decussate somewhere in the cerebro-spinal centres, but
Sir Charles Bell seems to have been the first physiologist who under-
took the attempt to determine the real situation of the decussation of
sensitive conductors; though he gives no experimental proofs whatever
of his idea, which was that the crossing took place in the floor of the
fourth ventricle, above and very close to, the decussation of the anterior
pyramids. Sir Charles Bell was so fond of making systematic plans
for himself, that he seems to have been thus led to adopt, on very
insufficient grounds, an idea which suited his imaginary scheme. He

276

REVIEWS.

found good anatomical reasons and pathological facts to support the be-
lief, that the voluntary motor fibres of the trunk and limbs make their
decussation at the lower part of the medulla oblongata, and that the
anterior pyramids are, for the most part, formed by these conductors
after their decussation. He could not have given his assent to the
view of Foville and Valentin, that there are, in the medulla oblongata,
two sets of motor columns, one the anterior pyramids, the other the
olivary columns, the fibres of which last they conceived to decussate
all along the pons varolii. Sir Charles wished to balance the notion of
the decussation of the motor fibres in the crossing of the anterior
pyramids (for which idea he had good foundation) by the idea of a
similar decussation of the sensitive fibres at a somewhat correspond-
ing point posteriorly (for which he had no foundation at all.) Many
physiologists, feeling dissatisfied with a baseless, purely speculative
theory, made this important question of the precise place of decussa-
tion for sensitive impressions, the subject of careful experiment ; and
some of them came very near to making the discovery, whose accom-
plishment was, however, reserved for Dr. Brown- Sequard, and which
is not only one of the most conclusive, of his demonstrations, but is
an addition to science of great practical importance.

lstly. The spinal cord of a mammal is laid bare at the level of the
two or three last dorsal vertebra?, and a lateral half of this organ,
(including the posterior, the lateral, and the anterior columns, and
all the grey matter on one side,) is divided. (See diagramatic figure,
3.) The animal is left at rest a little while, and then it is ascer-
tained that sensibility seems to be much increased in the posterior
limb, on the side of the section, while it seems to be lost, or extremely
diminished, in the posterior limb on the opposite side. There seems
to be therefore hypercesthesia behind and on the same side as, a trans-
verse section of a complete lateral half of the spinal cord, while on the
contrary, there seems to be ancestliesia behind and on the opposite side
to the section. With reference to motion it is the reverse ; power of
movement is lost on the side of the section, but persists on the unin-
jured side: see the diagramatic view, in which suppose thelesion marked
number 3 to be made in the dorsal or lumbar region, and let a r. re-
present the anterior or motor nerve root, continued on by a dotted
line to its decussation in the anterior pyramid, while p r. represents
the posterior, sensitive, nerve root, also continued through its sup-
posed decussation by a dotted line. For the present let us disregard
the increase of sensibility, a phenomenon which we shall subsequently
consider, and we have the following results of a complete section of
one half of the spinal cord in the dorsal or lumbar region.

On same the side as the injury.
Power of movement is lost,
sensibility continues.

On the opposite side to the injury.
Power of movement continues,
sensibility is lost.

BROWN-SEQUARD ON THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM. 277

2ndly. If after having made first, a section
of a lateral half of the spinal cord in the dorsal
region on the right side, and after having
ascertained that the right posterior limb is
quite sensitive, the left lateral half of the spi-
nal cord is divided in the cervical region,
then the right posterior limb loses its sensi-
bility. This experiment shows that the sen-
sitive impressions coming along pr. (after
the lesion at 3) had first crossed to the other
side of the spinal cord, along which they
were transmitted until interrupted by the
2nd section, not represented in the diagram.

3rdly. The spinal cord is laid bare in the
whole lumbar region, and a careful division
of the entire extent of the part of the organ, giving origin to the
nerves of the posterior limbs, is made directly along the middle
line, so as to separate the two lateral halves of the organ one from the
other. If this experiment could be executed perfectly, nothing
would be divided in the cord, except the commissures which unite the
right and left sides, and all the longitudinal elements of this centre
would be left uninjured ; but it is impossible not to cut more or less
on either side. However, when the operation has succeeded, i.e.
when the two lateral halves have been very little injured, a striking
result is obtained. Voluntary movements still exist in the hind
limbs, but sensibility is entirely lost in them. The animal has the
use of his two hind limbs ; he moves about pretty freely. The
loss of sensibility, therefore, must depend on the division of the
commissures of the spinal cord, or in other words on the elements of
this organ which cross each other in the median line, or rather, in
the median plane.

If on comparing the results of these three experiments, and if,
after considering the many great difficulties already spoken of, which
attend all such experiments, the reader admits (as we ourselves
assuredly do) that the results may be accepted, then the inferences
from them are clear and undeniable ; so that it is unnecessary here
to point out how completely the third experiment disproves the no-
tion of some German physiologists, that the grey matter has the
power of transmitting impressions in every direction.

* Diagramatic representation of the decussation of the conductors for voluntary
movements, and of those for sensation. Ar. anterior roots continued by dotted
lines in the spinal cord, where they decussate ; pr. posterior roots and their decus-
sation ; g. the ganglia; mo. the medulla oblongata; r. the right, and/, the leftside.
1, 2, 3 represent supposed lesions of one lateral half of the medulla oblongata and the
spinal cord ; 1 above, 2 at the level of the decussation of the voluntary motor con-
ductors, and 3 at some part below this decussation, say in the dorsal or upper
lumbar region. The arrows indicate the direction of the nervous action in the mo-
tor and sensitive conductors. — ( Copied from Dr. Brown- -Sequard'ft work.)

278 REVIEWS.

The fourth lecture commences by the expression of the author's
hope that he shall be able to show, that the various sensitive impressions
of touch, of pain, of temperature, of muscular contraction, &c. are trans-
mitted by conductors which are quite distinct from one another, and
so much so, that the conductors of painful impressions, for instance,
are no more able to convey other kinds of impressions than to trans-
mit the impulses of the will to muscles. It is to be regretted that Dr.
Brown- Sequard has not, in these lectures, given very fully all his reasons
for adopting this view. The Muds of sensitive impressions which he
believes to be furnished with distinct and separate conducting fibres,
are the sensations of touch, tickling, pain, heat, cold, and the pe-
culiar sensation which accompanies muscular contraction. It is
obvious that in seeking to interrogate nature upon points so delicate
and refined as these, experimentation upon the lower animals can give
no satisfactory answer ; pathological cases, scrutinised with truthful-
ness and care, can alone yield accurate information upon these topics.
Hence it is that Dr. Brown- Sequard, with an earnest desire to obtain
light from every source, with a view to the elucidation of these im-
portant problems, appeals to the many medical men who may peruse
his book, and who have yearly opportunities of seeing numbers of
patients, whose cases may throw important and often decisive, light
upon the questions discussed in his paper. Those persons whose in-
terest in science and love of mankind dispose them to respond to
this appeal, and not to allow to pass unrecorded such cases, as may be
the means of tending to settle what is yet undecided in these ques-
tions, may add a thousand fold to the interest and value of such cases
as they may describe, by adopting one simple means of estimating, with
precision, the comparative capability possessed by different parts, of
appreciating the sensations of tickling, pricking, touch, heat, &c. In
the normal state, different portions of the surface are very variously
susceptible of these sensations; the tickling sensation, produced by light
brushing of the surface with a camel's hair pencil, is more felt around
the mouth, than over the nose ; along the front of the forearm, than
in the palm, or along the fingers : the feeling of a light shock or im-
pulse, like the pulsation of an artery, is much more distinctly per-
ceived by the tips of the fingers than by the knuckle, the lips or the
tip of the tongue ; thus, if a thin tube of vulcanised indian-rubber be
quite filled with water and tied at both ends, an impulse, produced by
letting a little hammer fall on one end, is felt at the other by the
finger, when the same cannot be appreciated by the lips, tongue, and
other parts ; if, on the contrary, the whole hand be held under water
and a gentle current be made to pass from a pipe through the water,
the striking of the current on the hand is felt at a greater distance
from the pipe, by the back of the hand, than by the palm. If ether,
or spirit, be applied to the surface and a draft of air made to play
upon the parts, the cold produced will be felt very differently by dif-
ferent parts of the body ; if a needle or pin be made to pass through
a small disk of cork so that a very little of the point projects, the

BEOWS-SEQTJARD ON THE CEXTEAL NEETOTJS SYSTEM. 279

pricking with this small point will be more delicately appreciated in
some parts than in others, and if the front of the forearm be irritated
by the application of a sinapism for a few minutes, we can easily
satisfy ourselves, by comparison with the other forearm, that, so far
as regards pricking, the sinapism has produced hyperesthesia. These
obvious facts place within our reach means, at once ready and toler-
ably precise, for making comparisons between symmetrical and other
parts of the surface ; but for measuring the degree of tactile sensi-
bility, perhaps the best method of all is that indicated by Dr. Brown-
Sequard in his " Experimental Eesearches." The curious facts
discovered by E. H. Weber, respecting tactile sensibility are well
known. He found that if the blunted points of a pair of compasses
are applied simultaneously on the skin, there is, according to circum-
stances, either the sensation of one or of two points. When the points
are both inside of certain boundaries, they are felt as one only, when
they are outside of these boundaries, both are felt. These boundaries
vary exceedingly in different parts of the skin, but, for a given part,
the differences between various individuals are not considerable. The
compasses may be made use of for measuring the degree of tactile
sensibility in diseases : in a case of considerable anesthesia of the
lower limbs, the patient only felt a single impression on one leg,
although the points of the compass were ten, fifteen, or even twenty
centimetres apart, whilst, on the other leg, he could distinguish
them at a distance of twelve centimetres. The normal limit for
that limb is generally from three to five centimetres. In another
case where anaesthesia was slighter, the limit of the discriminating
power was at from nine to sixteen, centimetres. In two other cases,
in which the diminution of sensibility had not been discovered by other
means of diagnosis, the compass indicated a very slight and beginning
anaesthesia ; the limit being at from six to seven centimetres.

These facts demonstrate that, by the help of a pair of compasses,
a physician can with tolerable precision determine : 1st, whether there
may be slight anaesthesia or not. 2nd, what is the degree of anaes-
thesia. 3rd, what changes occur from day to day in the amount of
anaesthesia as regards tactile sensibility.

The same is true for cases of hyperaesthesia. In a case of para-
plegia jof motion, the patient felt the two points of the compasses on
his feet, even at the distance of five millimetres, whilst a healthy
person feels the two points only when they are at a greater distance
than twenty-five millimetres. For success in such experiments the
two points should be blunted and applied simultaneously.

To how great a degree this tactile sensibility is capable of im-
provement by education, is known to every one who has visited insti-
tutions for the reception of blind persons ; yet, in making compara-
tive experiments on different individuals, or even different parts of
the same person, it should not be forgotten how much its delicacy
may depend upon the condition of the skin itself, quite independently
of the nervous system.

TOL. I. — N. H. K. 2 O

2£0 ItEVIEWS.

We have dwelt at some length on this subject, because we fancy-
that a close investigation of cases at the bed-side, with subsequent
pathological scrutiny, can alone set at rest this question. Although we
admit that Dr. Brown-Sequard deals with it, as with all the topics
treated of in his Lectures, with great subtlety, acuteness, and ability,
yet we cannot at present accept as proved, his idea that the nerve
fibres employed in the transmissions of sensitive impressions of touch,
tickling, pain, fyc. are as distinct, one from the other, as they all are
from the nerve fibres employed in the transmission of the orders of
the will to the muscles. Just as we must require of phrenologists to
determine psychologically what are, or what are not, the fundamental
faculties of the mind, before, as physiologists, we can venture to assign
to each its local habitation, so, before we can assign different conduc-
tors to each variety of sensitive impression, must we determine what
are the various sensitive impressions which are fundamentally distinct
from one another. "We may incline to admit the general truth of
Dr. Brown- Sequard's view with reference, for instance, to the apprecia-
tion of weight through muscular action, as distinct from the feeling of
heat, while we regard touch, tickling, ordinary pain, as mere phases of
one more general sensation, depending perhaps in their varieties upon
the texture of the skin, the hair, &c. It is certain, however, that the
analysis of cases given by Dr. Brown-Sequard lends considerable
weight to his idea :

Thus, case 24 is reported as having lost the feeling of pinching,
pricking and muscular sensibility; sensibility to cold and tickling
remaining.

Case 23, loss of the feeling of tickling or contact ; persistence of
the feeling of pain.

Case 13, loss of tactile sensibility ; increased sensibility to painful
impressions.

Dr. Budd's case, {Medico-Chiriirgical Transactions), in which
contact was felt while heat was not perceived.

Ollivier's case : loss of feeling of pain on pinching ; diminished sen-
sibility to cold, heat, and touch.

It has been ingeniously suggested that the appreciation of harmonic
sounds by the auditory nerve, the peculiar and agreeable thrill, for
instance, produced by notes which are the octaves of each other, bears
the same relation to ordinary hearing, that tickling does to ordinary
tactile sensibility : the notion of Dr. Brown- Sequard seems to lead to
the supposition that distinct nerve fibres may exist for each variety
of auditory sensation ; and analogy might lead to the supposition that
the optic nerve contained distinct conductors for every colour of the
spectrum, so that colour-blindness and absence of " ear" would find
their explanation in deficiency or absence of the conductors of these
sensitive impressions ; these speculations, however, touch on subjects
of so delicate a nature, that we fear they are likely to remain for ever
merely hypothetical.

Although, therefore, it appears to us that Dr. Brown- Sequard's

BROWN- SEQUARD ON THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM. 281

view wants further evidence for its complete substantiation, we wish
to state what exactly are his notions on this subject. It seems to him
that the conductors of the various sensitive impressions pass along
distinct fibres, which decussate in the spinal cord : that none of them
go up to the brain along the posterior columns. It remains, in his
opinion, to be known where the decussation takes place for the nerve
fibres conveying different sensitive impressions, but he conceives that
for all sorts of sensitive conductors save one, there is evidence that their
place of decussation is in the immediate neighbourhood of the entrance
of the posterior roots into the spinal cord ; the conductors of the kind
of sensitive impressions which originate in muscles when they contract,
— impressions which, on being felt, guide our movements, — perhaps
form an exception and decussate very high in the spinal cord : in sup-
port of which, Dr. Brown-Sequard cites the fact that in most of the
cases of alteration of a lateral half of the spinal cord which he has re-
ported, the voluntary movements are said to have been unimpeded on
the opposite side of the body, which would not have been the case if
the " guiding sensation" had not been felt. In one of these cases, how-
ever (case 37), the patient had lost that peculiar muscular sensibility
which guides voluntary movement, as she could not hold her child in
her arm when she did not look at that arm. But as the precise seat
of alteration in this case was not known, no positive conclusion can
be drawn from it : it would only seem to show that the fibres of mus-
cular sense do not decussate, along with those for muscular motion, in
the decussation of the anterior pyramids. Before passing on to the
consideration of the very important discoveries of modern physio-
logists, concerning vaso-motor nerve fibres, we may observe that even
though it be assumed by some that there are distinct conductors for
various sensitive impressions, yet it appears certain that such con-
ductors do not run in distinct bundles, along definite tracts of the
spinal cord, any more than do the nerve fibres seem to run in groups
or distinct bundles, from the surface supplied by them, to the brain.
Were it so, and admitting that sensitive impressions are mainly pro-
pagated along the grey matter, it would follow that certain injuries
done to the grey matter, but not dividing it completely, would be
followed by loss of some particular variety of sensation, or, in the
other instance, by anaesthesia in particular patches of the surface
from which the divided bundles of nerve fibres would have come.
But this is not what occurs ; after lesion of the spinal cord, engaging
more or less of the grey matter, sensibility is not completely destroyed
in certain places, remaining perfect in -other parts: but sensibility is
diminished and apparently, equally diminished, in all parts posterior
to the lesion, and this diminution of sensibility continues to become
more marked, the more the grey matter is divided, until, when the
anterior columns alone remain, anaesthesia is established. Thus, while
one is certainly induced to believe that the grey matter of the cord con-
ducts sensitive impressions as a whole, and not, as a nerve, by separate
conductors coming from particular points — it is evident that the

232 EEYIEWS.

conductors in tlie spinal cord are not so arranged, as to follow
distinct channels, running in bundles, in continuation of the nerve
roots, nor does it seem probable that such is true for the conductors
of pain, touch, tickling, &c. Indeed this, among other things, would
incline one much more to regard the spinal cord as a nerve tubule on
a very large scale, than as a large nerve composed of many indepen-
dent conductors, as has been the view of many : looked upon as a
gigantic nerve tubule, the spinal cord may be considered as having, in
its investing membrane, a structure analogous to the tubular membrane
of a nerve fibre ; and in the white structure of the columns, anterior,
lateral and posterior, the structure represented by the white substance
of Schwann ; while the grey medullary substance takes the place of the
axis cylinder. Of course this comparison merely serves to point out
an ideal similitude ; nevertheless, as • it seems probable that the axis
cylinder, encased and insulated as it is by the surrounding tunics, can
be the means of conveying sensations produced by divers means of
irritation, so it seems that there is some reason to suppose that the
grey matter conveys all sorts of impressions, and even also the orders
of the will to muscles.

If we divide transversely, in the dorsal region, the whole posterior
half of the grey matter and a part of the lateral columns, besides the
posterior columns, we find that the voluntary movements are much
diminished in the abdominal limbs. If the division be carried further,
so that the whole of the central grey matter be divided, the animal can
hardly move its abdominal limbs, and if we add to this section that of
the anterior horns of grey matter, the loss of movement seems to
become complete, although the anterior columns continue undivided.
Hence it seems that, not only is the grey matter the conductor of
sensitive impressions, but that also the commands of the will to muscles
in a great degree pass along it : nay, more, that in making a gradual
division of the grey matter, power of voluntary movement is by degrees
diminished more and more, until it is entirely lost in the abdominal
limbs, while yet the anterior columns remain undivided.

In the fifth, sixth, seventh and eighth Lectures, Dr. Brown-Sequard
enters upon an analysis of pathological cases, bearing upon the views
which he has elucidated, by experimental research in the preceding dis-
courses. We have already said that it is not our intention to enter
here upon the consideration of the pathological portion of Dr. Brown-
JSequard's work : we shall therefore content ourselves with saying upon
this subject, that although, after a careful perusal of these chapters,
we cannot in all respects coincide with the deductions drawn by the
accomplished author from the cases he details, yet that it is obvious
throughout, that he never seeks to coerce phenomena and symptoms
into harmony with any definite scheme of his own creation ; that his
only object seems to be the discovery of truth, not the framing of a
systematic but baseless fabric. We pass then directly to the latter
chapters, in which the functions and relations of the yaso-motor por-
tion of the nervous system are considered, or/ in other words, leaving

BEOWN-SEQtTARD ON THE CENTRAL NEEYOUS SYSTEM. 2S3

behind what relates to voluntary movements and sensibility, we come
to the consideration of the influence of the nervous system on nutri-
tion, animal heat, secretion, &c. ; and, first, of the physiological and
morbid actions due to the great sympathetic nerve.

There is perhaps no department of physiology in which, within a
recent period, two or three discoveries have afforded so comprehensive
an elucidation of a large number of comparatively isolated facts, as in
that connected with the vaso-motor nervous system. It was probably
for the want of these discoveries that the observations of the thought-
ful "Why tt and of the profound Prochaska, were so long neglected and
apparently forgotten, or, at all events, that their real importance was by
no means understood. The expression of Prochaska with reference to
the capability of sensorial, being reflected into motor impressions, suf-
ficiently proves that the mind of this great physiologist had grasped
the idea which Le Grallois and Mayo, Marshall Hall and Miiller "did
so much to develop subsequently. But even the facts accumulated
by the latter observers hung together but loosely, until their connexion
and value were indicated by the more recent researches of Claude
Bernard, Brown- Sequard, and others.

Professor Claude Bernard published the results of his first re-
searches on the effects of division of the cervical sympathetic nerve,
in 1851 and the beginning of 1852. The great fact announced in
these publications was, that this section was constantly followed by
a considerable afflux of blood to the parts of the head supplied by
the sympathetic. Along with the greater afflux of blood and accom-
panying dilatation of the blood-vessels, the temperature becomes
elevated, hyperesthesia is noticed, and the vital properties of the
parts generally become increased.

Dr. Brown- Sequard, with Dr. Tholozan, had before this, performed
an experiment which, taken in connexion with the preceding, prepared
the way for what was to be expected from galvanisation of the cervical
sympathetic, after sections of it had first given rise to the above pheno-
mena. The experiment alluded to is one of prime and fundamental im-
portance, and was undertaken with the intention of trying whether Dr.
W. P. Edwards was right in his assertion, that if the temperature of
one part of the body be raised or lowered, a corresponding rise or fall
takes place, more or less, in all other parts of the body, according
to circumstances. This assertion is found quite true in one sense,
yet in exactness to bear an interpretation quite different from that
put upon it by Edwards.

Drs. Brown-Sequard and Tholozan^ found that if one hand was
plunged in water at tne temperature of its freezing point, a very strong
lowering action was exercised on the temperature of the other hand,
while a thermometer placed in the mouth indicated but slight diminu-
tion of heat : thus, in one case, the hand kept in the atmosphere lost, in
seven minutes, 22° Pahrenheit, while the temperature of the mouth was
not diminished more than the fifth of a degree. We therefore cannot
hesitate to admit that this cooling of the hand in the atmosphere was

284 EEVIEWS.

produced by a contraction of the blood-vessels, due to an action in the
nervous system, and not to general loss of temperature affecting the
blood of the system generally. Besides, it was observed that, the
greater the pain produced in the arm immersed in the cold water, the
more the temperature was diminished in the hand left in the air.
But other proofs are not wanting that the action of the nervous
system is, in this way, sufficient to dimmish the calibre of blood-vessels.
"We have ourselves performed the following modification of the fore-
going experiment. A bat is placed upon a small piece of board and
fastened with both wings fully expanded, so that one, say the right,
can be readily inspected with a microscope. As the web of the bat's
wing is generally too much darkened with pigment to admit of very
precise observation of the blood-vessels, it is necessary to peel off some
of the epidermis, which is easily done by seizing a portion of it with
a pair of forceps over one of the metacarpal ribs of the wing and so
tearing gently off a small portion : in the portion thus denuded an
artery and accompanying vein are to be sought, and the former accu-
rately measured with an eyepiece micrometer. If then a small muslin
bag of snow, or powdered ice and salt, be applied to the other wing, in
a short time, we may observe the artery under observation diminish-
ing very remarkably in calibre, and indeed, under favourable circum-
stances, becoming almost entirely closed ; as we have seen in a bat
which had been flying about in a small room, the upper part of which
was very warm in consequence of the burning of gas in it ; the animal
was consequently warm and its circulation very active at the moment
of the commencement of the experiment.

On the announcement, therefore, of Bernard's discovery on section
of the cervical sympathetic, Brown-Sequard was prepared to expect
that the irritation of the divided sympathetic by galvanism would pro-
bably be followed by constriction of the blood-vessels and the very
reverse phenomena of those observed to follow the section ; and he,
in America, and a couple of months later, Bernard, in Paris, announced
this important discovery to the scientific world, while Dr. Augustus
"Waller, though ignorant of the publications of either of the former
experimenters, communicated the same discovery to the " Academie
des Sciences."

There is no doubt that the knowledge of the effects of paralysis
and of irritation of the sympathetic nerve, thus obtained, opened a
new and most important field for physiological investigation, indeed,
it is one in which many labourers have already toiled with success.
The immediate connexions and relations of the sympathetic to the
cerebro-spinal axis had, it is true, been already tolerably well inves-
tigated by anatomists, but the presiding influence exercised over
the heart, blood-vessels, and indeed over involuntary muscular fibre
generally, by the nervous system, had not been studied with suc-
cess by physiologists : the vast importance of the sympathetic system
in its union with the cerebro-spinal axis had not been fully recognized:
nor had any real attempt been made to explain many of the principal

BBOWW-SEQTJABD ON THE CENTIME NEBTOTTS SYSTEM-. 285

phenomena connected with nutrition, secretion, animal heat, &c. which
are now regarded as being under the control of the vaso-motor system
of nerves. It would be impossible, within the limits of an article such
as this, to give even a resume of the many important facts, the disco-
very of which has given a sanction to the views of many eminent
physiologists, which, it must be confessed, was needed : and indeed,
it is not possible to do more than allude to some of the leading hypo-
theses which have of late been put forward, with reference to the
influence of the entire nervous system upon blood-vessels, or (as we
have already stated in more general terms) , upon involuntary muscular
fibre, whether in the heart, blood-vessels, intestines, or elsewhere.

One of the hypotheses in question appear to us as novel and start-
ling, as it does speculative and untenable, and were it not that it is
associated with the name of one of the most eminent experimental phy-
siologists in Europe, it would hardly call for even a passing mention.
Professor Bernard has imagined, that the dilatation of the blood-
vessels in many of the circumstances influencing secretion, &c. is an
active phenomenon ; he fancies, in fact, that the capillaries have two
properties, contraction and dilatation, and, if we understand him aright,
he conceives the latter to be no less an active phenomenon than the
former, each being put into play by a distinct set of nerves. On the
other hand, to say that the blood-vessels dilate in consequence of a
greater attraction for arterial blood developed in the tissues of the
part, conveys to our mind no distinct meaning, but is merely putting
into other, and less simple, terms the expression of what takes place
when the small arteries are observed to become dilated. The view ad-
vocated by Pfliiger, (Ueber das Hemmungs Nerven- system), must be
admitted as exceedingly ingenious, and as giving a very adroit expla-
nation of many of the phenomena in question ; but we cannot but
agree with Mr. Joseph Lister, that the supposition, that there is a
certain set of nerve fibres, the so-called inhibitory system of nerves
(Hemmungs Nerven-system) whose sole function is to arrest, or keep
a check upon, action, seems a very startling innovation in physiology,
and one which we must be very cautious about accepting, so long as
the same phenomena may be accounted for by the supposition of a more
simple, comprehensive and uniform action in those nerve fibres, which
seem to preside over the movements of involimtary muscles. Indeed,
we cannot help looking forward to a further development of the
notions shadowed forth by Lister, that the peripheral expansions,
(ganglia and nuclei, &c.) of the nervous system are in all cases essen-
tial to these contractions of vessels, &c. and while capable of inde-
pendent action, are nevertheless susceptible of being stimulated or
checked by the governing influence of the central nervous system ;
the so-called inhibitory influence being due to the more or less ener-
getic operation of the same nerve fibres, and bearing a remote analogy
with that almost, if not entirely, passive condition of the nervous
system, which gives rise to muscular tonicity.

But to pass from the realms of hypothesis, it appears tolerably

286 BEYIEWS.

certain that the sympathetic nerve is, first, essentially, though not
exclusively, a motor nerve of blood-vessels ; secondly, that it originates
chiefly from the cerebro-spinal axis ; thirdly, that its paralysis is cha-
racterised by a dilatation of blood-vessels and afflux of blood, and
by the results of this afflux ; and fourthly, that its excitation, whe-
ther direct or reflex, is characterised by a contraction of the blood-
vessels, and the results of this contraction. The origin of the cervical
sympathetic has been indicated by Augustus "Waller and Budge, as
taking place between the sixth cervical and fourth dorsal vertebra?, and
it is probable that it has an origin even more extended. As regards
the other fibres of the sympathetic, Dr. Brown-Sequard believes, that
those going to the blood-vessels of the various parts of the head,
come out mainly from the spinal cord by the roots of the last cervical,
and first and second dorsal nerves. Their real place of origin he
thinks to be partly the spinal cord, and partly the higher portions of
the encephalon, but chiefly the medulla oblongata and the neighbour-
ing parts of the encephalon. In the other parts of the body, the
nerves of the blood-vessels seem to come chiefly from the cerebro-
spinal centre as well as the cervical sympathetic.

On division of a lateral half of the spinal cord in the dorsal
region, we find in the lower limb on the same side, most of the effects
of a section of the sympathetic in the neck, viz. dilatation of the
blood-vessels, increase of heat and sensibility, and of the general vital
properties of the parts. Hence it seems to follow that the vaso-
motor nerve fibres follow, in the spinal cord, a course similar to, if not
identical with, the fibres for the propagation of commands of the
will to muscles ; so that, referring again to our diagram, a section of
the spinal cord in the dorsal region, suppose at 3, would be followed,
on the same side as the injury, by paralysis of motion and the symp-
toms of paralysis of the vaso-motor nerves, i. e. dilatation of the
blood-vessels, &c. In this fact, we find some means of accounting
for the hyperesthesia on the side of the lesion ; for the dilatation
of the blood-vessels is, as we know, accompanied by an increase in
the vital properties of the part, hence we find increase of heat and
increase of sensibility. "Whether this explanation is one altogether
satisfactory we shall consider afterwards. As the dilatation of the
blood-vessels, resulting from paralysis of the vaso-motor nerves, has
been experimentally shown in the head of the rabbit, after section of
the cervical sympathetic, and in the lower limb on the same side,
after section of a lateral half of the spinal cord, so the constriction
or spasm of these vessels has been made obvious as the result of gal-
vanic and other stimulation. The discovery of Dr. Brown-Sequard
as to the contraction of the vessels of the ear on galvanisation of
the cervical sympathetic after section, was a prime step in this direc-
tion. We regard likewise the researches of Mr. Joseph Lister* " On
the parts of the nervous system regulating the contractions of the

* Philosophical Transactions, Part ii. 1858; also " On the early stages of Inflam-
mation," by the same author, in the same volume.

BROWN- SEQUARD ON THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM. 287

arteries," as of great value, and as having done much to explain the
discrepancies upon this subject found between the experiments of
Schiff, "Wharton Jones, "Waller, and others. The constriction, says
Lister, of the arteries of the frog's webs, on irritation of the cord, may
be well demonstrated in the following simple maimer. The head of
the frog being depressed, so as to stretch the ligament between the
occiput and the first vertebra, a sharp knife is carried across the
spinal canal, immediately behind the head, so as to divide the cord
from the brain ; the toes may now be tied out and any observation
made upon the web, without the inconvenience generally produced
by voluntary struggles on the part of the animal, while at the same
time the use of chloroform is avoided, which is desirable, on account
of the irritating effect of its vapour on the web, and the constant
care required for its administration. If the webs be examined, im-
mediately after the operation, they will be found exsanguine from the
extreme constriction of the arteries, but in a few minutes this state
will gi\re place to dilatation, with free flow of blood. If now a fine
needle, curved at the end, be introduced through the wound in the
spinal canal, so that its point may penetrate a short distance into
the cord, while the eye of the observer is kept over the microscope,
the arteries will be seen to become constricted to absolute closure,
and to dilate again, after withdrawal of the needle. The experiment
may be repeated as often as may be desired, until the cord becomes
disorganised. Pfluger, in operating upon the large edible frog, suc-
ceeded in applying the galvanic stimulus to the anterior roots of the
sciatic nerve within the spinal canal, with the effect of producing
complete constriction of the arteries of the webs. Division of the
same roots, on the other hand, was followed by full dilatation of the
vessels. From this experiment it appears that the vaso-motor nerve
fibres pass along with the motor nerve roots.

( To be concluded in our next.')*

* It appears so desirable to complete the Bibliography of 1860 in the present
number, that we have determined, however unwillingly, to defer the publication of
the remainder of the Review of Dr. Brown-Sequard's labours, in older to allow
space for the excess of bibliographical matter. — [Eds.}

VOL. I. — N. H. R. 2 P

2S8 REVIEWS,

XXX. — The Fauna of Equatorial Africa.

Such interest has been excited concerning the merits of M. Du
Chaillu's discoveries in Western Equatorial Africa, and so much dis-
cussion has taken place upon the subject, that, although that gentle-
man's volume of " Explorations and Adventures," has perhaps no
great claim to be considered a scientific work, we have been induced to
devote some pages of this Journal to its examination, and to take the
opportunity of making a few general remarks on the present state of
our knowledge of the Mammals and Birds of the Gaboon country,
and of the adjacent portions of Western Africa.*

As M. Du Chaillu himself tells us, he formerly resided at the
Erench fort on the Gaboon river, as a- trader, and there " gained his
first knowledge of Africa, and his first acquaintance with the Gaboon
tribes." During this period, however, which was antecedent to that
spoken of in the narrative of his adventures, M. Du Chaillu was
not altogether idle in the cause of Natural History. By reference
to the pages of the " Proceedings of the Academy of Natural
Sciences of Philadelphia," it will be found, that a collection of birds
was received from him during the year 1855. Mr. John Cassin f has
given us an account of the new species contained in this series, and
at the same time, has taken the opportunity of remarking that M. Du
Chaillu's " discoveries in Zoological and Geographical Science were
in a high degree important and interesting." As Mr. Cassin's name
may be not so well known to all classes of our readers, as it is to
those who have paid particular attention to Ornithology, it may be,
perhaps, as well to mention, that his reputation stands deservedly
high amongst those of living naturalists, who have devoted their
chief attention to the class of Birds, and that, in the particular sub-
ject of West African Ornithology, his authority ranks next to that of
Dr. Hartlaub of Bremen, the title of whose masterly work on this
subject, we subjoin.

On his return to America in 1855, it appears that M. Du Chaillu
received such encouragement, as induced him to determine to continue
his explorations in the Gaboon country. On turning to page 410 of

* We shall have occasion to refer, chiefly, to the following works: —

System tier Ornithologie Westafrica's, von Dr. G. Hartlaub, Bremen, 1857.

Catalogue of Birds collected on the Rivers Camma and Ogobai, Western
Africa, by Mr. P. B. Du Chaillu, in 1858, with notes and descriptions of new
Species. By John Cassin. Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of
Philadelphia for 1859, pp. 30, 91, 133, 172.

Descriptions of new Mammals from Western Equatorial Africa. By P. B.
Du Chaillu. Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural History, Vol. vii. pp.
296 and 358.

Explorations and Adventures in Equatorial Africa. By Paul B. Du Chaillu.
London, 1861.

f See Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, 1855,
p. 324.

THE FAUNA OF EQUATORIAL AFRICA. 289

the volume of "Proceedings" for 1855, which we have already
quoted, we find that at the meeting of the Academy held on the 16th
October of that year —

" Mr. Cassin announced that Mi\ Du Chaillu was about to return to "Western
Africa for the purpose exclusively of geographical exploration, and the collection of
objects of Natural History. Arrangements have been made to secure, for the
Cabinet of tins Society, the collection of Birds especially, and also of some other
objects. Mi". Cassin explained the general design of the exploration, which was to
pass from Cape Lopez, 1° S. lat. towards the supposed source of the Congo river,
with the intention of attempting to reach its source.

" Mr. Du Chaillu had already penetrated farther into the interior of this part of
Africa than any other white man. The coast is unknown farther inland than from
twenty to twenty-five miles, except to slavers, there having been no exploration of
that part of Africa, Mr. Du Chaillu had been on the Rivers Moonda and Mouni,
had traced the latter to its source, and had ascertained the existence of high moun-
tains, probably a continuation or spur of the Atlas range, and much further south
than is to be found in any published maps.

" Another fact ascertained by him, is the existence of a very populous nation,
of marked Negro character, known as the Powein Nation, which he estimates at
from five to seven millions. Their country extends across from the sources of the
Moonda, probably to the sources of the Nile, and the nation is probably that men-
tioned by Bruce, as occasionally descending the Nile. It is a warlike and cannibal
nation, engaged in agriculture, not wandering, resembling in this respect the
Ashantecs and Dahomeys. It displays the highest degree of civilization yet observed
among the true Negroes, presenting an analogy to the Feejees among the Oceanic
nations. Mr. Du Chaillu possesses peculiar advantages as an explorer. He has
lived long in the country, is entirely acclimated, speaks well two of the languages,
and understands thoroughly the Negro character. He proposes to proceed merely
with convoys of natives from each tribe successively to the next.

" At the suggestion of Dr. Leidy, a Committee was appointed to solicit contri-
butions from the Members of the Academy to aid the expedition."

Such appears to have been the origin of M. Du Chaillu's second
expedition, of which he has given us an account in his much- canvassed
" Explorations and Adventures." From them we gather that our
explorer left America in October 1855, the very same month in which
Mr. Cassin made the above given communication to the Academy ;
and that he remained in Africa until the 8th of June 1859, so that he
appears to have been absent on this expedition, upwards of three
years and eight months.

Our opinion on the merits of the volume, which contains the
record of M. Du Chaillu's adventures during this period, may be stated
very simply. "We have read M. Du Chaillu's pages with great
interest, and have derived much instruction from them. We believe
his narrative to be true, or as true as the narrative of any traveller of
M. Du Chaillu's stamp — drawn up as it lias probably been from rough
and imperfectly kept notes, assisted by the efforts of a rather vivid
imagination and a not very perfect memory — is ever likely to be. M.
Du Chaillu has no doubt made a chaos of his dates. The birds dis-
covered during the Cape Lopez expedition, which, according to his
book, appears not to have taken place until 1857, were certainly safe
in the stores of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, on
the other side of the Atlantic, in October 1856 ; and were worked out

290 BE VIEWS.

and described by Mr. Cassin, before the end of the following Decem-
ber.*

M. Du Chaillu has no doubt " borrowed " many of his illustra-
tions, and has committed the additional error of not acknowledging
his debts in this respect. This, we think, may be easily explained by
the fact of his having employed an American artist, who was not in
the habit of drawing pictures of beasts and birds, and found it more
easy to copy Mr. "Wolf's and other originals, than to invent attitudes
of his own.

As we have already suggested, M. Du Chaillu can lay no claim to
the title of a scientific Naturalist. He who speaks of " Humming-
birds " (p. 37), Deer (p. 71), Vampires (p. 112), and Anacondas
(p. 273) in Africa ; who calls a Hornbill (Toccns camurus) a Toucan
(p. 170) ; who kills " venomous " snakes " a little over thirteen
feet long " (p. 57) ; who terms Bos hrachyceros " a new and hitherto
undescribed species of Buffalo" (p. 175), while he uses a name given
to it twenty-five years ago ; who " feels the breath of a serpent
against his face " (p. 273) ; and who " turns turtles " in fresh water
lakes, and then classifies them among the Mammalia in his list of
newly discovered species, is no doubt a vigorous voyager and a lively
narrator, but wants the knowledge and the sobriety of a man of science.
And we are not at all surprised, therefore, at his making out his mam-
mals to be new species, when certainly the greater number of them
have been described long ago. " Every man thinks his own geese to
be swans," and the error of describing old species as new, is one of
such ordinary occurrence, that we fear there is scarcely a living Na-
turalist, who could wash his hands and say that he was innocent
of the offence.

M. Du Chaillu cannot even fairly claim to be a scientific traveller,
for he took no observations, either astronomical, barometrical, mete-
orological or thermometrical ; he determined neither heights nor dis-
tances ; and did not even keep his Journal with sufficient accuracy to
prevent his making such errors in the dates of his book, as, we have
been informed by one of his critics in The Athenceum, have led him
to cram four Julys into three years.

On the other hand, it must be evident, that such errors as we have
last described, are of the very kind that any one, intentionally de-
ceiving, would most surely avoid. And we consider M. Du Chaillu,
in spite of all these, not inconsiderable, shortcomings, to be an energe-
tic and active explorer, who has entered a region never before dis-
covered by civilized man, who has seen and hunted the GtOeilla in
his native wilds, and brought back a mass of information concerning
this interesting " anthropoid," and his kith and kin among the apes.
And we wholly repudiate the theory of those who broadly hint, that

* See " Catalogue of Birds collected at Cape Lopez, Western Africa, by P.
B, Du Chaillu in 1856, with notes and descriptions of new Species. By John
Cassin." Proc. Acad. Philad. 1856, p. 316.

THE FAUNA OF EQUATORIAL AFRICA. 291

his whole story is a myth, that his most positive statements cannot
be depended upon, and that he probably passed his three years and
eight months vegetating on the coast, and obtained his natural
history specimens by barter with the natives at different ports !
It is, we fear, owing to the somewhat over-zealous way in which he
has been taken up and made a " lion" of, that M. Du Chaillu has
provoked such severe criticisms upon his performances ; such, indeed,
as, in our opinion, ought not to have been put forward, until the most
positive and satisfactory evidence of the untruth of his statements
had been obtained.

So much for M. Du Chaillu's volume of adventures. Now let us
take a glance at some of the more noticeable among the Mammals and
Birds that inhabit the countries he has discovered. To begin with
the Quadrumana. " That monstrous and ferocious ape," as our author
calls the Troglodytes gorilla, seems to be confined to a narrow belt of
forest land, immediately under the Equator. We shall not fill our
pages with extracts of what M. Du Chaillu has to say about this
animal, but beg of our readers, most of whom have probably done this
without waiting for our request, to turn to the original. With regard
to M. Du Chaillu's two supposed new species of Troglodytes, which
he has described in the " Proceedings" of the Boston Society of Natural
History, and named T. calvus and T. koulo-kamba* neither the
characters, as there given, nor the inspection of the skulls lying on the
tables in the Royal Geographical Society's Library have as yet quite
convincedus of their specific difference from the Chimpanzee (T.niger).
We may, however, remind our readers that a high authority — Profes-
sor Duvernoy,in one of his elaborate Memoirs on the large Anthropoid
Apes, which have been published in the " Archives du Museum d'His-
toire Naturelle,"f has already discriminated a Troglodytes TscJiego,
founded upon a skeleton obtained by M. Franquet during his resi-
dence as Chief Medical Officer on the Gaboon Station, and that it is
by no means impossible that one of M. Du Chaillu's supposed new
Apes may be referable to this species.

Besides the genus Troglodytes, two other genera of highly organized
Quadrumana occur in Equatorial Africa : Colobus, represented by Mr.
Waterhouse's C. satanas, of which M. Du Chaillu has obtained several
examples, and Cercopithecus — a numerous group of Monkeys, quite
confined to and characteristic of, the ^Ethiopian Fauna. Of the latter
genus we have noticed among M. Du Chaillu's trophies, skins of
C. erythrotis, C. Campbellii, and 0. pogonias, and of 0. collaris — belong-
ing to the subgroup Cercocebus. It -appears to be the C. pogonias
(described from Furrier's skins by the late Mr. Bennett in 1833) that
M. Du Chaillu has inserted amongst his " new species" under the
specific name " nigripes"% Another scarce and interesting Monkey

* See Journ. Boston S. N. H. vii. pp. 296-358.

f See Archiv. du Museum d'Hist. Nat. vol. viii. p. 1 et seq. (Paris, 1855-6.)

% See also Proc. B. S. N. H. vii. p. 360.

292 REVIEWS.

obtained by M. Du Chaillu, is Dr. Gray's Presbytes albigena, described
and figured in the Zoological Society's " Proceedings"* for 1850,
from an example formerly living in the Society's Menagerie. The
typical specimen was, as far as we know, previously unique, and the
exact locality uncertain, so that in this, as in other cases, M. Du
Chaillu has done us good service in increasing our knowledge of pre-
viously known species of Mammalia, although he may not have been
so fortunate as to have discovered many new to science. Now that
its African habitat is fully established, a more accurate examination
will probably show the necessity of removing this Monkey from the
Asiatic group Presbytes, with which it has been hitherto arranged.
M. Du Chaillu has also described as new a Lemur from this country,
{Otolicnus apicalis) which will require further investigation.

Among the Carnivora, the Leopard appears, according to M. Du
Chaillu's narrative, to be tolerably abundant in the Gaboon country.
"We observe also in his collection skins of a Jackal (Canis mesomelas?)
and several Genets (Genetta poensis and G. par din a), upon one of
which M. Du Chaillu has probably established his Genetta fieldiana.
There are likewise skins of an Otter (Lutra), and of a little Otter-
like animal, which we believe to be really new to science, and which
M. Du Chaillu has describedf as Cynogale velox, with the sub-
generic name Potamogale, attached in case of necessity. The skull
and teeth being absent, it is impossible to determine the true position
of this interesting Mammal in the natural series, without accurate
examination and comparison ; but, if M. Du Chaillu's account of its
habits and teeth are correct, he is perhaps not far out in his views as
to its natural affinities.

He tells us (Proc. B. S. N. H. vii. p. 362) :—

" This extraordinary animal is found in the mountains of the interior, or in the
hilly country explored by me north and south of the Equator. It is found along the
watercourses of limpid and clear streams, where fish are abundant; it hides under
rocks along these streams, lying in wait for fish. It swims through the water with a
rapidity which astonished me; before the fish has time to move, it is caught; on
account of the rapidity of its movements I have given it the specific name of velox.
The animal returns to land with its prey almost as rapidly as it started from its
place of concealment. The great motive power of the animal in the water seems to
be in its tail."

"With regard to M. Du Chaillu's Antelopes, we cannot but agree
with Dr. Gray in recognising Mr. Ogilby's Antilope euryceros in the
Tragelaplius albo-viryatus, but M. Du Chaillu certainly has the merit
of having obtained the first tolerably perfect example of this animal.
Among the smaller species of this genus, we observe four species of
the genus Cephalophus, amongst which are C. sylvicultrix, badius,
Oyilbyii, and a fourth, very probably new. There are likewise skins of
the only representative of the Musks (lloschi) in the ^Ethiopian
Fauna — the Hyomosclius aquaticus. Can M. Du Chaillu give us any
information as to the reputed aquatic habits of this animal, for the

* See P. Z. S. 1850, p. 77, pi. xvi. f Proc, B. S. N. H. vii. p. 361.

THE FAUNA OF EQUATORIAL AFRICA, 293

late Earl of Derby lias remarked of his specimens in captivity, that
they " take no notice of the water?"*

The typical Bovine of Western Equatorial Africa seems to be Bos
oracliyceros, a name pertinaciously misspelt by M. Du Chaillu, who
also gives us a good deal of queer information concerning its wildness
and ferocity when attacked. We cannot compliment M. Du Chaillu's
artist on his representation of this animal (p. 175), nor is the picture
(p. 204) of a native tossed by one of them, more creditable. Eor
correct figures of the head and skull of this Bos, we must refer our
readers to the " Bijdragen tot de Dierkunde," published by the Society
" Natura artis magistra," of Amsterdam, where an interesting notice
of it will also be found from the pen of H. S. Pel, formerly Dutch
Resident on the Gold Coast, and discoverer of many fine novelties in
Natural History.

Among the numerous Artiodactyles of West Africa we find, in
M. Du. Chaillu's volume, frequent reference to the Hippopotamus.
There appears to be no doubt that the ordinary species is here spoken
of; but we may remind our readers, that a few degrees further
north of the Equator is Liberia, the home of the Chceropsis liberiends of
Dr. Leidy, the only known, second, recent species of this formerly more
extensive, genus of Pachyderms. It would be interesting to know
whether its range extends thus far south, but we have no doubt that
the officers of the Institution, who are the fortunate custodians of the
only knoivn examples of this scarce animal, did not forget to remind
M. Du Chaillu of the importance of obtaining additional specimens
if they were to be had.

The characteristic Pig of these latitudes is the Potamoclicerus peni-
cillatus, now well known in England from the species having lived
and bred for these last few years in the Zoological Society's Gardens.!
Some slight deviations in character from the ordinary type have
induced M. Du Chaillu to give this animal a new name (P.
albifrons). His artist has also perpetrated an execrable figure of this
beast, which Mr. Murray ought to have been ashamed to publish,
after Mr. Wolf's inimitable portraits of the living animal. J

M. Du Chaillu's Rodents embrace some half a dozen specimens of
Squirrels, (Sciuri erythrogenys, Stangeri, pyrrhopus, tyc.) most, if
not all, already known from Western African skins, and two species
of the singular African type Anomalurus, namely, A. Fraseri, and A.
Beecrofti. It appears to be the latter, which has been described
under a new name as A. Beldeni, and the figure given (p. 455), is, as
has been already pointed out by Dr. Gray, an unacknowledged copy
of Mr. Wolf's drawing of the same animal in the Zoological Society's
" Proceedings," with merely the ears a little sharpened.

* See Knowsley Menagerie, p. 22.
fSeeP. Z. S. 1861, p. 62.
% See Proceedings of the Zoological Society, with Illustrations, 1852, pi. xxxiv:
and Wolf and Sclater's Zoological Sketches, (London, 1861) pi. 29.

294 EEYIEWS.

Nor do we see any reason to consider M. Du Chailln's Manatee
as new to science. It may be either 31. senegalensis or M. Vogelii —
if these are really different. But in this, as in other cases, careful
comparison and much study are requisite for the accurate determi-
nation of the species, and we recommend M. Du Chaillu to place
his specimens of Mammals in the hands of some competent Zoologist,
who may be able to bring the question, as to whether he has really
discovered anything new, to a satisfactory determination. A care-
fully drawn up list of the Mammals obtained by M. Du Chaillu in
this country, with notes of their habits, based upon his personal
observation, would form a very acceptable addition to our knowledge
of the African Fauna.

We must now say a few words with regard to the Birds of the
Gaboon country. The greater part of this branch of M. Du Chaillu's
collections has" become part of the magnificent series, belonging to
the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia — a collection which
in respect of its number of stuffed specimens, and its possession of
rare types, probably rivals, if it does not surpass, that of our own
National Museum. It is, therefore, quite true, as some of M. Du
Chaillu's critics have observed, that among the skins exhibited by
him at the Geographical Society's rooms, there will be found but
few species new to science. But those who will take the trouble to
consult Mr. Cassin's papers in the Philadelphian Academy's " Pro-
ceedings," and Dr. Hartlaub's standard work on the Ornithology of
Western Africa, may easily convince themselves that, in this branch
of Natural History, the success of M. Du Chaillu's researches has
been undeniable. Upwards of fifty new species, first brought to
light during his travels, have been described by the eminent Orni-
thologist whose name we have first quoted above, and their authen-
ticity has been further guaranteed, by the examination of the
greater part of them, by the second. The names of these species
will be found altogether, in the list of " Birds discovered by P. B.
Du Chaillu," printed at p. 472 of his work, and we much regret
that some differences, which, we believe, arose between the Philadel-
phian Academy and M. Du Chaillu, after his return to the United
States, should have induced the latter to withhold the acknowledg-
ment, certainly abundantly due to Mr. Cassin, for the labour he has
devoted to this subject. We cannot conclude this notice better than
by giving one or two extracts from M. Du Chaillu's book, which
afford us some information concerning several of the rarer species.

Gyphohierax angolensis is usually classed with the Vultures. Dr.
Hartlaub, upon the authority of Pel, states its habits to be those of
the " Pishing-Eagles," and this is confirmed by what M. Du Chaillu
says, (p. 131.)

" We continued to skirt the sea-shore, our aim being to gain a Shekiani village,
where we proposed to stop the night. I shot a beautiful black and white fishing
eagle (the Gyphohierax angolensis), which sat on the very top of a huge cotton- wood
tree, looking gravely down into the blue sea below, meditating its finny prey.

TITE FAUNA OP EQUATORIAL AFHTOA. 295

The beautiful Guinea-fowl {Numida plumiferd), discovered, by
M. Du Chaillu, is not found in tie forests near the sea-shore, but is
first met with, as he afterwards ascertained, about fifty miles east of
Sangafcanga.

" It is very shy, but marches in large flocks through the woods, where the
traveller hears its loud voice. It utters a kind of " quack," hoarse and discordant,
like the voices of other Guinea fowls. It avoids the path left by travellers ; but its
own tracks are met everywhere in the woods it frequents, as the flock scratch and
tear up the ground wherever they stop. It is strong of wing, and sleeps by night
on the tops of high trees, a flock generally roosting together on the same tree. When
surprised by the hunter they do not fly in a body, but scatter in every direction.
Thus it is a difficult bird to get, and the natives do not often get a shot at it."

Another very remarkable bird is the Phasidus niger — remarkable
as being the nearest approach, in the ^Ethiopian Fauna, to anything
like a true Gallus or Phasianus. The typical form of the Gallina-
cecd in Africa is the Guinea-fowl, Numida, near which also must be
placed the singular type Agelastes of Temminck. But Phasidus
seems really, not only in structure but in habits, to come nearer the
true Galli, and its plumage forcibly reminds one of GallopJiasis Hors-
fieldi and its allies.

" When," says M. Du Chaillu, " I saw the Phasidus niger for the first time in
the woods, &c. I thought I saw before me a domestic chicken. The natives have
noticed the resemblance too, as their name for it shows : couba iga, signifying wild-
fowl. 11 7ild they are, and most difficult to approach; and also rare even in the
forests where they are at home. They are not found at all on the sea coast, and do
not appear until the traveller reaches the range of fifty or sixty miles from the
coast. Even there they are so rare that though I looked out for them constantly,
I killed but three in all my expeditions. They are not gregarious, like the Guinea-
fowl, but wander through the woods, a male and one, or at most, two females in
company. They are very watchful, and fly off to retreats in the woods at the
slightest alarm."

Another remarkable type, for the discovery of which we are in-
debted to M. Du Chaillu's exertions, is the Alethe castanea, of which
we find the following notice (p. 273.) —

" Hunting in the rear of the village, on the 15th, I shot a curious bird, the
Alethe castanea—a, new species. It is said by the natives to have a devil in it —
for what reason I could not discover ; probably for none. But its habit makes it
singular. They fly in a small flock, and follow industriously the bashikouay ants
in their marches about the country. The bird is insectivorous; and when the
bashikouay army routs before it the frightened grasshoppers and beetles, the bird,
like a regular camp-follower, pounces on the prey, and carries it off. I think it does
not eat the bashikouay."

In conclusion we must advert to the fact that the French collec-
tors, Franquet, Aubry-Lecomte and Fosse, are also entitled to great
credit for the discoveries they have made in the Zoology of the
Gaboon. The numerous new species and splendid specimens which
have been received, from time to time, by the well-known house of
Verreaux in Paris have, we believe, been mainly the product of these
diligent collectors.

Dr. Franquet's exertions have furnished the materials upon

VOL. I. — S. H. E. 2 Q

29G ORIGINAL ARTICLES,

which MM. S. Gcoffroy St. Hilaire and Duvernoy have founded a
series of elaborate articles upon the Osteology and Anatomy of
the Anthropoid Apes, and his labours have been rightly commemo-
rated in the specific title of anew Bat — the Epomophorus Franqueti —
the largest and finest member of this peculiar group of African
frugivorous CMroptera, which has lately been described and figured
by Mr. E. ~F. Tomes in the Zoological Society's Proceedings,* and
dedicated to its discoverer.

Ditipwt 3trtti[te*

XXXI. — On tile Brain oe a Young Chimpanzee. By John
Marshall, E.RS. ; Surgeon to the University College Hospital,
London.
The Chimpanzee, whose brain is described in the ensuing pages, came
into my possession within twenty-eight hours of its death ; and the
cranium having been opened without delay, and the brain placed
immediately in strong spirits, the state of preservation of this organ is
very perfect.

The animal was a young male, in excellent condition, and appa-
rently free from disease. From the vertex to the heel, it measured
2 feet 4 inches ; from the vertex to the ischial tuberosities, 1 foot
6 inches. The fore hand was 5 J inches, and hinder hand 5f inches
in length : the fingers were nearly as long as the palm ; the toes were
not webbed at their base. The distance from the vertex to the chin
was 6 J inches ; from the vertex to the auditory meatus, 2\ inches ;
the circumference of the cranium, just above the ears, was 14^
inches ; the length of the ears, which strikingly projected away from
the sides of the head, was 2| inches. The temporary teeth were all
present, much discoloured, and much worn, but not even the incisors
were loose. In the lower jaw, the first permanent molar was well
through the gum on the left side, but that tooth was still partially
covered on the right : the corresponding teeth of the upper jaw
were still beneath the swollen gum ; so that, whatever the fact may
be worth, the same lateness of eruption of the upper teeth in com-
parison with the lower, as is observed in man, obtained in this
animal. The hair was a brilliant black, and the colour of the iris a
bright hazel. The total weight of the recent animal was 16 lbs. and
8 oz. avoirdupois.

Weights of the Encephalon and its parts. The entire brain, in-
cluding a portion of the medulla and cord, extending JL| inch below
the pons, together with the pia mater and cerebral arachnoid, but

* See P. Z. S. I860, p. 42, pi. lxxv.

MAESHALL ON THE BBAIN OF A YOUNG CHIMPANZEE. 297

excluding the pituitary body and pineal gland, weighed, immediately
after its removal from the cranium, exactly 15 oz. Deducting the
weight of the membranes afterwards removed (about \ oz.) and allow-
ing for the blood which these would contain, as well as for the short
piece of the spinal cord attached to the medulla, I calculated that
the nervous mass of the encephalon, in the quite recent state,
weighed at least 14 oz. This is an absolute weight, greater than that
of the brain of the young orang, described by Dr. Eolleston in the
last number of this Journal (p. 207), which weighed only 12 oz. It
also surpasses the absolute weights (9f oz. and 13£ oz.) of the brains
of a half grown male and of a female Chimpanzee, as given on the
authority of Professor Owen.* The brain of this young animal is, so
far as I am aware, the heaviest Simian brain yet on record. It is,
however, light indeed, in comparison with the weight of the human
brain in a child at about a corresponding period of dentition, which
would average at least 38 oz.f

The ratio between the weight of the entire brain (14 oz.) and the
body (264 oz.) in our Chimpanzee, both taken in the recent state,
and without any sign of emaciation in the animal, is very nearly as
1 to 19, so that the brain was relatively heavier than in Dr. Rolle-
ston's young orang, in which the ratio was as 1 to 22*3. Fitting such
a brain to the body of the nearly adult female Chimpanzee, stated
by Prof. Owen, J to weigh 976 oz., the proportion would be as 1 to
70. The actual proportions observed in the female Chimpanzee
mentioned above, whose body weighed 680 oz., were 1 to 51.
But much as this, unusually heavy, young Simian brain raises previous
estimated ratios, it still remains far below the human proportion,
taken at a corresponding age. In Huschke's case of the child of six
years, the ratio was 1 to 11 ; and the proportion in the human adult,
is usually given as 1 to 36, or as 1 to 40, in cases of persons killed
or dying suddenly, whilst the body is in a healthy state. % This, how-
ever, refers to European brains. In regard to other races our infor-
mation is defective.

At the end of several months, the entire brain of our Chim-
panzee, hardened and shrunk from the action of the spirit on its
watery, saline, and fatty ingredients, weighed only 9 oz. and a few
grains. In dissecting its right half, care was taken to weigh the
fragments of the cerebral hemisphere, and to ascertain the weight of
the right half of the cerebellum, and that of the pons, with the me-
dulla. The weight of the left half of the brain, which still remained
undissected, was also recorded. With these elements, and assuming that
every part of the brain had equally lost weight from the action of
the spirit upon it, it was easy to estimate approximately the separate
weights of the cerebrum, cerebellum, and pons, with the medulla, in

* Quain's Anatomy by Sharpey and Ellis. Vol. ii. 433, note, 1856. Trans.
Zool. Soc. Jan. 1846.

t See a table drawn up many years ago by myself, for Dr. Sharpey. Loc.
cit. p. 431. % Quain's Anatomy, ut antea, p. 433.

298 ORIGINAL ARTICLES.

the recent state. The weights of these three portions of the hardened
encephalon, respectively, were 75 oz. avoirdupois, 1*3 oz. and *2 oz. ;
so that the recent cerebrum would have weighed 11 GQ oz., the cere-
bellum 202 oz.,and the pons and medulla "31 oz.

According to these calculations, the cerebrum in the young Chim-
panzee is to the cerebellum, as 5*75 to 1 nearly. In the adult man it
was found by Dr. John Eeid to be about 8 5 to 1 ; and in the new
born child it appears from Huschke and others, to be at least 13 to 1.
In a child five years of age the ratio would probably be somewhere
between these. By the test of weight then, which I am not aware
to have been applied before, to the separate parts of the Simian brain,
the cerebrum of the Chimpanzee is found to be much smaller, in pro-
portion to its cerebellum, than is the case in man.

To carry still further this mode of comparison, we may next con-
trast the relative weights of the cerebrum and body, and then of the
cerebellum and body, in man and the Chimpanzee, by which double
contrast, we see, at once, the relative superiority in size of the cere-
brum, in man, and of the cerebellum, in the ape. Assuming the ratio
of 1 to 40, between the brain and the body in an adult healthy man,
and of 8"5 to 1, between his cerebrum and cerebellum, then the pro-
portion between his cerebrum and his body will be 1 to 447 and
between his cerebellum and his body 1 to 380 ; whilst in our Chim-
panzee, the proportions as estimated above would be 1 to 22*6, and
1 to 131. It is desirable that many more observations on the weights
of these separate parts of the encephalon in the several races of men,
and in animals, as compared with their bodies, should be collected :
they would yield neater results than those arising from measurements,
for reasons which will presently be abundantly illustrated.

General form, dimensions, and relative position of the parts of the
Mieephalon. Notwithstanding the care with which the Chimpanzee's
brain had been placed, with its upper surface resting on a bed of
cotton wool, in the spirit in which it had been preserved, a marked
distortion of its shape had taken place, by the time it was perfectly
hardened. Such a deformation must occur, to a greater or less extent,
in every brain removed from its cranial case, and placed in a similar
position. Its effects are surprising to those who are not familiar with
them, and cannot be correctly estimated, without comparing the so
altered brain with a cast of the interior of the cranial cavity, from which
this soft, pulpy, organ has been extracted. It influences the form of
the encephalic mass in all three of its cubical dimensions. The general
results are, a slight lateral bulging of the cerebral hemispheres, oppo-
site the parts tied together by the corpus callosum ; a more marked
falling asunder of the hemispheres at each extremity, but especially
behind ; a moderate elongation of the hemispheres ; and lastly, a very
marked, compensating flattening, on both the upper and under surfaces,
but especially, on the former, so that its characteristic convexity is
completely lost. Moreover, the cerebellum, together with the pons
and medulla, drag on the cerebral peduncles, so as to make these latter

MARSHALL ON THE BRAIN OF A YOUNG CHIMPANZEE. 299

assume a position nearly parallel to the under surface of the brain,
instead of descending obliquely from it ; hence, the cerebellum falls
backwards further than in its natural state, presses somewhat aside
the posterior ends of the cerebral hemispheres, and so modifies the
proper relative position of these parts of the encephalon. Besides
this, the general subsidence of the cerebral hemispheres, the falling
asunder of the points of the middle lobes, and the sinking in of the
cerebellum between the hinder portions of the cerebrum, diminish
the concavity of the orbital surfaces, injure the concave outline of the
lower border of the posterior half of the hemisphere, and convert its
natural overhanging curve into a nearly even, oblique border, passing
backwards and upwards, above the cerebellum. All these changes,
which must be still more marked in brains already partially decom-
posed, will be better appreciated by comparing the photographic
illustrations of our Chimpanzee's brain given in Plate YI. figs. 2 and 4,
with the outlines, figs. 1 and 3, (also taken from photographs) of a
plaster cast, which I made of the interior of the cranium of the
animal, before the dura mater was removed from the bone, and iu which,
the divided tentorium was first carefully stitched up, on both sides.

A comparison of these figures is of great interest, for it will not
only serve to elucidate a subject of controversy, just now of importance,
but it will demonstrate conclusively, that no proper estimate of the
general form of the encephalon, either of man or of brutes ; no exact
measurements of its parts ; and no correct idea of their mutual posi-
tions, can be obtained, unless by hardening the brain before it is
removed, or by correcting the notions derived from an examination
of this otherwise flaccid organ, by constant reference to the internal
form of the cranial cavity in which it was contained. M. Gratiolet
has been well aware of this fact and has availed himself of it in his
valuable researches ; but he has left an abundant field for future
observation. The internal forms of the crania of the different races
of mankind, especially, need to be systematically investigated and
measured in a similar manner.

The illustrations which accompany this Paper will enable the
reader to follow me, in the critical examination which I here feel
called on to make, of the various original representations of the
Chimpanzee's brain given by Tyson,* Tiedemann,* Macartney,*
Schroeder van der Kolk and Vrolik,* and Gratiolet.* Tested by a
comparison with the brain and cranial cast in my possession, or
(as the reader must do) with the faithful facsimiles of those objects
taken by aid of photography, the figures given by these authors will
all be found to exhibit, unmistakeably, the Chimpanzee characters ;
but they differ materially in value.

Tyson's figures are useless for modern science — in the main, owing
to their want of artistic rendering ; the basal view, as shown by the
position of the curved supra-orbital borders, is taken too much

* In the works already cited by Professor Huxley and Dr. Rolleston in this
Keview. I am not aware of any other original figures of this brain.

300 ORIGINAL ARTICLES.

from the front, so as completely to disturb the real relative positions
of the cerebrum and cerebellum ; and the cerebral arachnoid and pia
mater have not been taken away. The internal dissection is almost
unintelligible.

Tiedemann's two, more carefully drawn, figures represent an appa-
rently, well preserved, specimen, then, and probably now, in the Hunte-
rian Collection. From its small size, and from the imperfect develop-
ment of the convolutions, this brain was, most likely, taken from a very
young animal ; the cerebral membranes have been removed ; the
vertex is somewhat flattened ; the orbital surfaces have lost their
characteristic concavity ; the middle lobes have sunk asunder ; and
the cerebellum has, undoubtedly, been a little displaced backwards.

Macartney's two figures were drawn from plaster casts of the
brain, taken before the cerebral arachnoid and pia mater were re-
moved— at least this is evident enough in regard to the basal view. In
size, these figures exactly correspond with the brain in my possession.
Owing, probably, to the unavoidable pressure and disturbance in the
casting, there is, in spite of the support afforded by the cerebral
arachnoid, even more subsidence of the parts at the base, than appears
in Tiedemann's corresponding figure. The orbital surfaces, though
tolerably concave, are too wide across their base ; the points of the
middle lobes have fallen asunder ; and the cerebellum has, clearly, slid
backwards from the hollow of the cerebrum, into which it would
naturally fit : moreover, the convolutions are somewhat convention-
ally drawn and, in certain parts, imperfectly and inaccurately repre-
sented.

In the various figures given by Schroeder van der Kolk and
Vrolik, the brain is shown, entirely divested of its membranes ; the
convolutions are carefully and artistically rendered ; but all the above-
mentioned results of subsidence of the entire encephalic mass, both
laterally and from vertex to base, and the consequent distortion and
displacement of its parts, are particularly noticeable ; so that, on a
question of form and relative position, these now famous representa-
tions must come to be regarded as wholly unsafe guides. Barring a
certain primness of style, these figures are most carefully executed,
and they bear a critical comparison with our photographed views,
figs. 2, 4 and 5 ; but, the very closeness of resemblance between the
basal and lateral views and our figs. 2 and 4, shows that all have
equally been copied from nearly similarly sunken, or flattened, brains.
The width and evenness of the orbital surfaces, the severance of the
points of the middle lobes, the dragging back of the cerebellum, and
the sinking in of this last-named part between the hemispheres ; or,
viewed in its effect from above, the sliding of the posterior extremi-
ties of the hemispheres, forwards and sideways, over the cerebellum,
are all very obvious. One can note, especially, that owing, doubtless,
to circumstances connected with the state of the brain, or its mode
of preparation, suspension, or support, the unnatural lateral sepa-
ration of the cerebral hemispheres behind, is greatly exaggerated ; as

MARSHALL ON THE BEAU* OF A YOUNG CHIMPANZEE. 301

must be admitted by any one who contrasts the figure 2, Plate L,
of Sch. van der Kolk and Vrolik, not merely with the accompanying
photograph, fig. 5, but even with Ticdemann's and Macartney's figures.
Hence, the enormous surface of the cerebellum seen in the upper
view of the encephalon, in the Dutch anatomists' representation. "We
shall examine hereafter the merits, or defects, of their representation
of the interior of the lateral ventricle.

Lastly, M. Gratiolct's figures of the Chimpanzee's brain, which
are at once the latest and most trustworthy, were taken from a
specimen preserved in the Museum at Paris, the form being re-
stored (restitutes) by constant reference to that of the cranial cavity,
from which it had been removed. The general shape of the entire
brain, the relations of its several parts, the position of the cerebellum,
the various convolutions and all their surface markings, are most con-
scientiously reproduced, and, so far as the external anatomy of the
brain is concerned, leave little room for improvement. The multiplica-
tion of accurate data on such a subject is, however, most desirable, and
in the face of the very different statements just now made, as to mat-
ters of fact, in the anatomy of the Simian brain, new materials for
consideration cannot but be welcome to all parties. More particu-
larly it has seemed to me that, on the one hand, our figures 2, 4, and
5, so clearly demonstrate the defects of Schrocdcr van der Kolk's
and Vrolik' s representations, and, on the other, all the figures estab-
lish, so satisfactorily, the accuracy of M. Gratiolet's restorations, that
their publication will be useful to science. The view of the lateral
ventricle is also as complete as could well be obtained. In no case
has anything been altered or restored.*

In proceeding to describe the brain, from which these photographs
have been taken, I must observe that I have studied it side by side
with an average human brain, belonging to an adult, of whose cranial
cavity I also took a plaster cast, to serve as a standard of correction
in all questions of form, size and relative position. Wherever, in the
course of the following description, any comparison is made between
the human and Chimpanzee's encephalon, it must be understood
to refer to this particular human brain.

The general form of the cerebrum of the Chimpanzee, when viewed
from above, is not so much pyramidal, as Tiedemann indicates, but
rather, as Gratiolet figures it, it is a short, wide, ovoid, having its larger
end turned backwards, somewhat pointed behind, and considerably
so in front. It contrasts markedly, with the long ovoidal shape of
the human cerebrum, viewed on the same aspect. Placed side by
side, the difference between them is seen to consist, chiefly, in the
greater length and more equal width, in man, of the anterior portion,

* I am greatly indebted to my friend Mr. Herbert Watkins, for his pains and
skill in securing photographs of the natural size of the parts, from which the accom-
panying figures are reductions. Complete sets of ten full-sized photographs will be
supplied by him, or by the Publishers of this Journal.

302 ORIGINAL ARTICLE.

winch is almost square In front, instead of being pointed, as in the ape.
By adding on, as it were, a broad piece in front, the Simian brain
would assume, in this aspect, a nearly human shape. But the poste-
rior part of the hemispheres must, also, be somewhat lengthened and
widened ; and the lateral, or parietal, regions be likewise expanded.
In this view, no trace of the cerebellum is visible at the sides, or
behind, in either brain.

In the profile view, figs. 3 and 4, one is struck, in the Chim-
panzee's cerebrum, as compared with man's, first, with its semi- globular
shape; or rather, with its almost hemispherical outline above, — the
vertex being comparatively low, and situated only a little behind the
middle point, between its anterior and posterior extremities ; the curve
descending only a little more abruptly behind, than in front. In the
human cerebrum, the vertex is extraordinarily high and is placed
further back ; so that the fall of the outline behind, is necessarily
more sudden, and the depth of the posterior region is very charac-
teristic. In the ape again, the shortness and shallowness of the
anterior portion makes the curve of that part of the cerebrum more
abrupt, and more equal to the hinder curve, than it is in man, in
whom the elongated and deep, frontal region produces a much more
gradual curvature from the vertex forwards, than exists backwards.
The remaining points of contrast, in this aspect, are the singular,
recurved, beak-like termination of the frontal lobe — its very deeply
hollowed interior, or orbital surface — the great downward projection
of the point of the so-called middle lobe — and the more marked
obliquity and concavity of the lower border of the cerebrum from
that lobe, upwards and backwards, in the Chimpanzee ; as compared
with the flatter orbital surface — less prominent middle lobe — and
more nearly horizontal and straighter, lower border of the cere-
bruin behind that part, in man. In M. Gratiolet's side view, the
hinder part of the cerebrum is a little more depressed, than it is in our
specimen, and therefore a little less like the human shape. On this
lateral aspect, the cerebellum of the Chimpanzee appears to bear
about the same proportion, measured vertically and from before back-
ward, to the cerebrum, as it does in man: though, in reality, these pro-
portions of the cerebrum, are a little less in the ape, than in man, in
whom the cerebellum looks rounder in profile. In the ape, the cere-
bellum is overlapped by the cerebrum, to the extent of ^ths of an
inch, and, in the human brain, by -^ths of an inch, in other words,
by about ^ th of the total length of the cerebrum in the Chimpanzee,
and by only about Jffl of that measurement in man. So that the
relative amount of overlapping is greater in the Chimpanzee. Lastly,
in the ape, the direction of the medulla oblongata is a little more
oblique, than it is in man. In M. Gratiolet's lateral view, the cere-
bellum, indicated in outline, is represented as too deep, and the direc-
tion given to the medulla oblongata is too nearly horizontal, so that
the position of the cerebellum is not quite true : still, it is covered
by the cerebrum. In our own photographic view, fig. 4, and in

MARSHALL OX TIIE BLAIN OF A YOUXO CHIMPANZEE. 303

Schroeder van der Kolk's and Yrolik's corresponding view, in both
of which the characters of the lateral aspect of the Chimpanzee's
brain are entirely lost ; the cerebellum and medulla are pressed hori-
zontally backwards, so that the former is tilted up and projects too
far behind, and converts the natural!}- concave lower border of the
cerebrum, from the middle lobe backwards, into an even oblique line.
The same criticism must apply, we think, to the lateral view of the
Orang's brain, given by Dr. Rolleston, the obliquity which he notices
in his paper (p. 20G) being evidently the result of displacement
from pressure.

The comparison of the Chimpanzee's brain, as seen in. front and
behind, with the human brain, does little more than confirm the ob-
servations already made. Anteriorly, in the ape, the want of depth
and width of the frontal region, and the hollowing of the orbital sur-
faces ; and, posteriorly, the want of height in proportion to the
width, and the smoothing down of the parietal regions, as contrasted
with the towering height and width of those parts in man, are chiefly
noticeable ; so that the Chimpanzee's brain has a more compact,
rounded, form. We do not observe, in this animal, the wall-sided
shape of the lateral regions, mentioned by Dr. Eolleston as cha-
racteristic of the Orang, the sides of the cerebrum being very evenly
convex. In the posterior view, the cerebellum of the Chimpanzee
appears very wide in proportion to the cerebrum ; but it is shallow and
less full and rounded, than in man ; it is distinctly overlapped by the
cerebral hemispheres, on each side, but rather less so, than in the
human brain.

On the base of the Chimpanzee's brain, (see figs. 1 and 2,) the de-
ficient length and width, and the pointed character of the frontal re-
gion, anteriorly, as compared with man's, are very evident : the orbital
surfaces are extremely concave, and the median ridge,- on each side of
the longitudinal fissure, disproportionately prominent. The under
surfaces of the cerebral hemispheres, from the point of the middle lobes
to the hinder extremities of the cerebrum, are relatively shorter, and
appear more incurved, or kidney-shaped, than in the human brain.
The line of greatest width of the base of the brain, in the Chim-
panzee, is half an inch nearer to the posterior, than to the anterior
end of the hemispheres, lies just in front of the widest part of the
cerebellum, and passes across just behind the pons Varolii ; whereas
in man, it is placed proportionately further back, namely, 1\ inch
nearer to the occipital, than to the frontal, extremity, lies considerably
in front of the widest part of the cerebellum, and passes across a
little behind the pons. The cerebellum itself appears flatter, and is
much wider, in proportion to its length, from before backwards, and
also, in proportion to the extreme width of the cerebrum, in the
Chimpanzee, than in man, in whom it is more protuberant, and
though absolutely wider, less so in proportion to its other dimensions,
or to the width of the cerebrum. The greater relative size of the
cerebellum in this ape, depends therefore, mainly, on its greater rela-

vol. i. — x. h. k. 2s

304 ORIGINAL ARTICLES.

tive ividtli, — as shown by measurements taken in its natural state and
position, not when it is disturbed and displaced, — a statement some-
what differing from that usually made. In the Chimpanzee, propor-
tionally less of the under surface of the cerebrum is seen on each side
of the cerebellum, than in man ; but posteriorly, though the area of
cerebral surface seen, is less in this animal than in man, yet the
antero-posterior measurement of the surface is, in proportion to that
of the entire brain, greater in the Chimpanzee, being about ith of the
total length of the cerebrum, and, we may add, -ith the distance
from the point of the middle lobe to the posterior end of the cere-
brum, instead of Txrth and -|th respectively, as in man. As to the
medulla oblongata, it is less fore-shortened in this basal view of the
Chimpanzee's brain, than in man's, because it inclines a little more
backwards. In harmony with Soemmerring's law, the width of the
medulla at its base is, proportionately to that of the cerebrum, wider
in the Chimpanzee's, than in the human, brain.

If, finally, we take as a sort of arbitrary central point for the
entire cerebral mass, the centre of its common stalk, the medulla oblon-
gata, where it intersects the pons ; and imagine lines drawn thence to
the extreme occipital, frontal, parietal and vertical points of the
cerebrum, we find that, in the Chimpanzee, the actual lengths of
those cerebral radii, as they might be called, are respectively, 23, 29,
26, and 29 tenths of an inch, whereas, in man, they are 33, 43, 39
and 46 tenths of an inch. These numbers show, not only, the abso-
lutely, far greater size of the human cerebrum, but taking its size
as the standard, they show that the deficiency of the Chimpanzee's
cerebrum, is most marked in the vertical radius, next in the parietal,
then in the frontal, and least of all, in the occipital. In other words,
the superiority of development of the human cerebrum follows the
same order, as to regions, — being greatest in the vertical and parietal
combined, next in the frontal, and least of all, in the purely occipital
regions. The numerical ratios of these and other measurements will
be found in the following Tables. In Table I. the ratios are given in
reference to the human measurements as units ; a plan which I can-
not but think is preferable to that of making every separate animal's
brain a separate unit of comparison with man's.

Table I.

Measurements of the parts of the Encephalon in Man and the
Chimpanzee, given in -^ths of an English inch, with the ratios be-
tween them, taking the human measurements as units.

Cerebrum.

a. Extreme breadth , . .in Man 50, in Chimpanzee 37 = 1 to *74

b. if length .... // 65 // 44 = 1 to -68

c. // height .... // 45 // 29 = 1 to '65

d. Length of orbital surface . . // 23 // 15 = 1 to *65

e. Extreme depth of frontal lobe . // 35 // 20 ] to '57

MARSHALL ON THE BRAIN OF A TOLTNG CHIMPANZEE. 305

f. From point of middle lobe to hinder ). -*,nn .0 . „,.
J end of the brain . . . \ m Man 48' m Chimpanzee 34 = 1

g. Cerebral radii, occipital . . // 33 u 23 = 1 to • 7
h. a frontal ... u 43 h 29 = 1 to -67

parietal . . // 39 // 26 = 1 to -66

to -7

t. a

j. ii vertical ... // 46 u 29 = 1 to "63

ft. Projection of cerebrum beyond cc- > no

rebellum . . . . \ " 6 " 5 = 1 to -83

Qwehelhm.

Z. Extreme breadth . . . .in Man 36, in Chimpanzee 30 = 1 to 73
m. ii length . . . . it 24 // 16 = 1 to "66

n. u depth .... // 14 ii 8 = 1 to *57

Table II.

Ratios between the dimensions of different parts of the Ence-
phalon, in Man and in the Chimpanzee.

Cerebrum.

a
a
c

to b
to c
to b
to f

in Man 1
// 1
// 1
// 1

to 1*3, in Chimpanzee
to -9 //
to 1-44 i,
to 2-03 //

Cerebellum.

1 to
l to
1 to
1 to

1-2

•74
1-5
2'26

m to I in Man 1 to 1'5, in Chimpanzee 1 to 183
m to n ii 1 to -57 // 1 to '5

n to I ii 1 to 2-57 // 1 to 375

Cerebrum and Cerebellum.

m to b in Man 1 to 2-75, in Chimpanzee 1 to 27
n to c ii 1 to 3-2 ii 1 to 36

I to a u 1 to 1*39 u 1 to 1-23

Medulla and Cerebrum.

Breadth of Medulla oblongata to ) . -««• , . - • ™ • , . ,. „

that of cerebrum . &. . }m Man 1 to 7, in Chimpanzee 1 to 57

N.B. — All the above measurements, except those of the medulla, were taken by-
aid of the intra-cranial casts. They necessarily differ from those taken from the
brain itself by various anatomists. Such measurements as relate to internal parts
will be given hereafter.

The Fissures, Lobes and Convolutions. The Sylvian fissure, more
vertical than in man, even in the preserved Chimpanzee's brain,
fig. 4, S, appears still more so in the cast, fig. 3 ; but in the cast of
the human brain it is, also, somewhat more upright than in the pre-
served specimens, though not so much as in the Ape. The fissure of
JRolando, figs. 4, 5, R, is very distinct in the Chimpanzee's brain,
passing obliquely forwards from the longitudinal fissure, in a zigzag
line, and separating the first ascending convolution, fig. 5,4>4'' from
the second ascending convolution 5>5/. The V-shaped figure which the
two fissures of Rolando make, where they unite with the longitudinal

306 ORIGINAL ARTICLES.

fissure, is a very striking feature in the upper aspect of both the
Quadrumanous and the human brain ; but, in the Chimpanzee, the
point of the V is situated a little in front of the transverse axis
of the hemispheres, whilst in man it is, to a still greater extent,
behind that axis. Suppose the whole length of the hemispheres to
be represented by 100, then from the fore-part of the brain to the
point of the V, would measure, in the Chimpanzee, 49, and, in man,
57. It is obvious, on further examination, that whereas nearly one-
half of the upper surface of the cerebrum lies in front of the fissures
of Eolando in man, a very little more than one-third is so placed in
the Chimpanzee. In the Orang's brain, figured by Dr. Eolleston,
the proportion appears to be mid-way between the two. There can
be no reasonable doubt, that the part of the hemispheres situated in
front of these remarkable fissures in man, the Orang and the Chim-
panzee, and we may add, in still lower Quadrumana, are homologous
parts, in the truest sense of that term. The anterior cornua of the
lateral ventricles project into them, passing beyond the first ascend-
ing convolution on each side. The external perpendicular, or ver-
tical, fissure, figs. 4, 5, V, is particularly well developed in the
Chimpanzee's brain ; it is not bridged over, on the upper surface of
the hemispheres, by any superficial convolutions, so that its posterior
border, named by M. Gratiolet the operculum, is smooth and unin-
terrupted. It is continued, on the internal surface of the hemisphere,
as a distinct internal perpendicular fissure. In the particular human
brain which we have dissected for the purposes of this paper, the
external perpendicular fissure is obliterated, but it can be unmis-
takeably traced on the internal surface of the hemispheres, within the
longitudinal fissure, as the internal perpendicular, or vertical, fissure.
In the ape, this fissure cuts off 23 parts, posteriorly, out of 100 of the
length of the hemispheres as visible above ; in man, the corres-
ponding portion represents 20 parts out of 100 ; in the Orang
figured by Dr. Eolleston, the proportion seems to be intermediate.
There can be as little doubt here, as in regard to the parts in front
of the fissure of Eolando, that the portions of the hemispheres be-
hind the perpendicular fissure, in man, the Orang, and the Chim-
panzee, as well as in the lower apes, are strictly homologous parts
of the cerebrum. We shall see that the posterior cornua of the
lateral ventricles extend into them. Between the fissure of Eolando
on each hemisphere, and the perpendicular fissure, is an equally
homologous region which, in the Chimpanzee, occupies the remaining
28 parts out of 100, of the total length of the cerebrum ; whilst, in
man, it constitutes 23 parts, i. e. as seen directly from above ; but
this particular region, and also the part behind the perpendicular
fissure, it must be remembered, are just those which gain so much
in their vertical dimensions, in the human brain. If, in fact, we
measure longitudinally over the vertex, the relative spaces occupied
by these three regions, which may be distinguished as frontal,
parietal and occipital, though they do not exactly coincide with the

MARSHALL ON THE BRAIN OF A YOUNG CHIMPANZEE. 307

margins of those bones, we find that the proportionate dimensions
in the Chimpanzee would be 46, 28, 26, instead of 54, 23, 23, out of
100, as in man.

Turning next to the outer side of the cerebral hemisphere, fig. 4,
the so-called parallel fissure, situated parallel with and behind,
the Sylvian fissure, is rather more complicated in our specimen
than in M. Gratiolet's figure. On the inner surface of the hemis-
phere, besides the internal perpendicular fissure, there is seen a
longitudinal fissure, surmounting the convolution of the corpus cal-
losum. And lastly, on the under surface, rather than on the
internal surface, of the hinder part of the hemisphere, is seen, very
well marked, the fissure of the hippocampus, commencing, as described
by Gratiolet, along the outer or lower border of the fimbriated con-
volution, and passing backwards in a curved direction, towards the
hinder extremity of the hemisphere. The corresponding fissures
plainly exist in the human brain dissected by us, pari passu with that
of the Chimpanzee.

Now, whatever grounds of definition as to the leading sub-divi-
sions of the cerebral hemispheres may be adopted, it is at once
apparent that all those sub-divisions of the human cerebrum, called
lobes, are present in the Chimpanzee. In the phraseology of the
older anatomists, the anterior and middle lobes are well distinguished
by the fissure of Sylvius, which, however, is comparatively not qrrite so
deep as in man. At the bottom of this fissure, is plainly seen the insula,
or island of Eeil. Looking at the Chimpanzee's brain, it is quite indif-
ferent whether we choose the usual arbitrary definition of the limits
between the middle and posterior lobe, viz., a line drawn in front of
the cerebellum, or whether we select the one more recently laid down,
according to which the posterior lobe signifies that part " which covers
the posterior third of the cerebellum and extends beyond it" ;* for,
in either sense, the posterior lobe exists in our Chimpanzee's brain,
inasmuch as the cerebrum projects half an inch beyond the cerebellum
in its natural and undisturbed position, whilst the human cerebrum,
under the same conditions, projects only a tenth of an inch more.

If, however, we reject these arbitrary modes of distinguishing the
various lobes, and follow a more philosophical method, for example,
the one suggested by Gratiolet, a corresponding conclusion is forced
upon us, viz., that all the great masses in the human brain have their
anatomical representatives, or homologues, in the Chimpanzee. The
frontal lobe (figs. 4 and 5) F, together with the parietal lobe P,
marked off by the first ascending convolution 4»4'» which is included in
the latter, lie above the Sylvian fissure, and in front of the vertical
or perpendicular fissure; the teviporo-sphenoidal lobe, T, lies below the
Sylvian fissure ; the central lobe is the island of Eeil ; and the occi-
pital lobe, O, is the part behind the external vertical fissure. Though
this latter fissure is broken across by convolutions, its place can

* Professor Owen.

308 ORIGINAL ARTICLES.

usually be recognized iu the human brain, by tracing outwards from
the longitudinal fissure, the internal vertical fissure, which is always
present, though thrust backwards at its upper end by the enlarge-
ment of the parietal lobe, so as to be somewhat oblique instead of
vertical. On the internal surface of the hemispheres of the Chim-
panzee, thefronto-parietal and. quadrate lobes are seen to occupy the
space in front of this fissure, a small internal occipital lobule lies behind
it, and the temporo-occipital lobe is at once distinguishable, below the
anterior portion of the fissure of the hippocampus. As thus defined,
it is impossible to escape from the conviction that all the above-
named parts exist in the Chimpanzee, as well as in man ; and that,
amongst others, the little occipital lobules at the posterior extremity
of each hemisphere, in the former, are the homologues of those in the
latter. "We shall see that this conclusion is fully supported by the
closest scrutiny of the convolutions, and of the internal structure of
the cerebrum.

As to the convolutions in the Chimpanzee's brain, one can hardly
pay a better tribute to M. Gratiolet's general accuracy, than to
adopt his description of them, whilst referring to our own specimen.
After pointing out the general characters of the frontal, parietal and
occipital lobes, a remarkable notch which interrupts the border of
the orbital surface, (seen in our fig. 4), the large size of the occipital
or posterior lobe, and the even or perfect edge of its operculum,
figs. 4, 5, in front of 10,10', he proceeds thus, p. 50 : —

" The convolutions of the frontal lobe are very large, even larger and wider
than those of the Orang. The superior frontal convolution* (figs. 3, 3', 4 and 5,) is
subdivided into two parts, of which the highest is marked by secondary sulci.

" The middle frontal convolution, 2, is well marked. The inferior frontal or
supraciliary convolution, 1,1, is very large, and broadly designed, so that the frontal
lobe is well developed in all its parts.

" '\"he first ascending convolution, 4,4, is slender, flexuous, and only slightly in-
clined backwards : it presents no marginal notches, and its surface is absolutely
smooth.

" The second ascending convolution, 5,5, is equally simple and smooth; it passes
up by the side of the preceding one, forming parallel flexuosities with it; but having
reached above the bent convolution, 6, (pli courbe), it forms an elbow, and spreads out
into a large lobule, 5'5", which is prolonged back to the external perpendicular
fissure. This lobule, [named by M. Gratiolet the lobule of tlie second ascending
convolution^ is very elegantly subdivided by a rather complicated sulcus, which serves
to separate two distinct convolutions, one external, 5 ', the other internal, 5". The
external convolution pursues a very simple course; but the internal one is folded
several times upon itself, an arrangement which is tolerably constant. _

" The commencement of the lent convolution (pli courbe), 6,6', is remarkable.
In the Orang and in the Gibbon, it begins at the top of the Sylvian fissure. In the
Chimpanzee, it arises in front of the summit of that fissure by a large extremity, fig.
4, and describes a very extensive curve around it.

" As to the descending part, 6', of the bent convolution, it is very slender,
scarcely flexuous, and rather long, * * * *

" The convolutions of the temporal lobe, are very simple, * * * * . [They are

* We substitute here the references to our figures, for those given by M. Grati-
olet to his. The italics are in the original. My own additions are between brackets [].

MAB SHALL O^ THE BBATN OF A YOUNG CHIMPANZEE. 309

named the supci'ior temporal or marginal, 7,7, the middle temporal, 8,8, and the
inferior temporal, 9. The convolution of the hippocampus major is marked * in
fig, 2. The Island of Reil has five shallow convolutions.]

" We have already stated that the occipital lobe, o, is very large. It presents
several parallel sulci, amongst which the one which separates the middle occipital
convolution, 11, from the superior occipital convolution, 10,10', predominates. The
operculum, [viz. the border in front of 10,10'], is entire and well developed.

" But the chief ground of distinction between the brains of the Chimpanzee and
Orang is the absence [in the Chimpanzee] of the superior connecting convolution
(le premier pli de passage).

" Thus, the first or superior connecting convolution is absolutely wanting.
[This, if present, would pass across the operculum opposite to 10, fig. 5].

" Hie second connecting convolution is hidden under the operculum. [This lies
opposite to 10'].

" The third, fig. 4, c, and fourth, d, connecting convolutions are superficial."

Prom the foregoing quotations, it will be seen that the arrange-
ment of the convolutions in our specimen, coincides remarkably
with the description of M. Gratiolet. It must be noted, however,
that all those on the vertex, are considerably hroader and flatter than
in the restored figure given by that author ; but they resemble in
this respect, very strikingly, those represented in Schroeder van
der Kolk's and Vrolik's plate. This flatness, evidently the result of
pressure, affords a special confirmation of the view that the brain
figured by the Dutch anatomists, like our own specimen, had been
deformed during its preservation.

Of the convolutional characters which, in M. Gratiolet's opinion,
distinguish the Chimpanzee, viz., the great size of the occipital lobe,
the neatness of definition of its operculum, the mode of origin of the
bent convolution, the absence of the first connecting convolution,
and the hidden position of the second, all are strictly fulfilled upon
the left cerebral hemisphere of our specimen ; but, on the right or
dissected side, of which a photograph is preserved, there was a rudi-
mentary superior connecting convolution, of very small size, passing
from the outer margin of the lobule of the second ascending convo-
lution, outwards, and then, bending inwards and backwards, across the
perpendicular fissure, to join the occipital lobe. The presence of this
superior connecting convolution in the Chimpanzee, and on one side
only, is another example of that variety and want of symmetry, as
regards these connecting convolutions, noticed by Dr. Eolleston in
his interesting paper (p. 212). Nevertheless, vary as they may, the
several connecting convolutions are evidently, as M. Gratiolet
first pointed out, the traces, or homologues, of much more highly de-
veloped, but corresponding, parts of the Brain in man. On the whole,
too. the evidence is still in favour of this particular connecting con-
volution being less developed in the Chimpanzee, than in the Orang.
As to the second connecting convolution, it existed on both sides of
the Chimpanzee's brain, concealed under the operculum, but of good
size. In reference to what M. Gratiolet describes as a very remark-
able feature in the Chimpanzee's brain, viz., the broad origin of the
bent convolution (pli courbe) in front of the top of the Sylvian fis-

310 ORIGINAL ARTICLES.

sure, instead of at its summit, as in man and the Orang, I feel dis-
posed, from a comparison of the parts in the Chimpanzee with the
human brain, to consider this, so-called, unusually broad and forward
origin of the bent convolution, 6, as in reality the homologue of the
so-named " lobule of the superior marginal convolution," which is
regarded by Gratiolet as peculiar to man : on such a supposition the
bent convolution would arise in man's, the Orang's, and the Chimpan-
zee's brains, all at the same point ; and if Dr. Eolleston's supposition
be correct (1. c. p. 212), all these would possess a " marginal lobule,"
which, however, like the connecting convolutions, would be far more
highly developed in man. On the interesting question of the rela-
tive superiority of the Chimpanzee's and Orang's brain, our specimen,
on the whole, is in favour of the claims of the latter. The Chim-
panzee's convolutions are more symmetrical. But the subject of the
cerebral convolutions is too prolific a one to be discussed at length
here.

It is utterly impossible to follow M. Gratiolet's analysis without
coinciding with him, entirely, as to the correspondences of his essential
subdivisions of the cerebral masses. One general fact he illustrates
very fully, viz., that uniformity and symmetry of arrangement are
marks, so far as they go, of inferiority of cerebral development. Now,
this is not merely true in regard to different species of animals, or
different individuals of the same species, but in any one brain, even in
the human brain, there are certain convolutions which are more uni-
form and more symmetrical than the rest, and these very same con-
volutions vary less in different, though allied, groups of animals. The
convolutions which are thus characterized in the Quadrumana and
in Man, are those which belong to Eoville's first order, those which
form as it were the extreme rim or circumference of each cerebral
hemisphere, viz., the convolution of the corpus callosum, on the
inner side, and the convolution which surrounds the Sylvian fissure,
on the outer side. The various fissures, or sulci, which separate
these primary convolutions from those which occur next to them,
also partake of the same comparative simplicity ; whilst the further
one recedes from them, on to the external surface of the hemisphere
between them, the greater complexity and variety one meets with,
both in the convolutions and in their intervening sulci. In accordance
with this rule, the under surface and the internal surface, of the
hemispheres are more simple than their external, or convex, surface ;
and hence, whilst the detection of corresponding parts becomes more
and more difficult in certain portions of the latter region, as we
ascend in the scale of organisation ; in the two former the necessary
landmarks continue very clearly recognisable. This is certainly the case
in regard to the internal and under surfaces of the posterior part of
the hemispheres ; and if any one will examine the series of basal
views of Quadrumanous brains in Gratiolet's work, in which the
cerebellum has been removed, so as to show the under surface of the
back part of the hemispheres, he will be able to trace in one of the

MARSHALL ON THE BRAIN OF A YOUNG CHIMPANZEE. 811

more or less simple, yet elegant, curved lines, proceeding backwards
from the outer side of the corresponding cerebral peduncle, an evi-
dently homologous fissure, present in many, otherwise most varying,
brains. This fissure is the fissure of the hijipocampus. Its exten-
sion backwards to the tip of the occipital lobe is seen in all ; and it
serves at once to identify parts which, on the upper surface of the
hemisphere, cannot so easily be compared. It is at the bottom of
the middle half of this fissure, that the cerebral substance is tucked
%, in the form of two deep hidden sidci, to constitute the hippocampus
minor and eminentia collateralis, in the posterior cornu of the lateral
ventricle, where that prolongation of the great internal cavity of the
brain exists. But supposing that prolongation did not exist in any
particular brain, still the presence of even ^rudimentary fiysure occupy-
ing the above-described characteristic position, would suffice to
justify the conclusion that the surrounding parts of the cerebrum
were homologous parts. Now, a careful comparison of these parts in
the human brain, in the brain of our Chimpanzee, and in the brain
of a common Green Monkey, has satisfied me that the fissure of the
hippocampus and its two deep hidden sulci, are present in all three.

Internal structure of the Brain. The cerebral convolutions of the
Chimpanzee's brain are very large on the outer surface of the hemi-
spheres, where indeed, as is seen in fig. 5, the sulci are, proportionately,
quite as deep as in the human brain. On the frontal lobe, they are also
bold ; but in the occipital lobe the convolutions are smaller, and the
sulci for the most part shallower, though both are still very numerous,
so that the smoothness of this part of the brain is not owing to an
absence of convolutions, but to their diminutive size and depth. The
superior occipital convolution is, however, almost devoid of any sur-
face-markings. This part of the brain is smoother than in the Orang.
It certainly would seem as if it were behind the rest in development, at
least in the young Chimpanzee. We may remark, as suggestive of a
similar idea, that these posterior convolutions were found to be
more tender than those of the parietal or frontal regions ; and, as is re-
cognisable in fig. 5, that the grey cortical layer is thinner in them than
elsewhere. In the human brain, also, the occipital convolutions are
not so bold as those on the sides and fore part of the hemispheres ;
but the difierence is not nearly so marked as in the ape. The aver-
age thickness of the grey matter is about -^-ths of an inch, hi the
Chimpanzee, as compared with -^ths, in man. In proportion to the
size of the brain, it is curious that the quantity of white matter in
the centre of the hemispheres seems smaller than in man.

Of the various commissures of the cerebrum in the Chimpanzee,
we will speak first of the corpus callosum. This is both shorter and
thinner in proportion than in man, as the following measurements, in
30ths of an inch, taken in each case from the hardened brain, will show.
In the ape, the length, the greatest thickness, the least thickness,
and the average thickness of the corpus callosum divided along the
middle line, are respectively 51, 6, 2 and 45 thirtieths of an inch ; in
man the corresponding quantities are 93, 16, 6 and 13. The sectional

vol. i. — n. h. r. 2 s

312 ORIGINAL ARTICLES.

area of the longitudiually divided corpus callosum iu the Chimpanzee,
is therefore f-f^ths of a square inch ; whilst in man it is U2_o_9ths of a
square inch. Comparing these numbers with the area of the internal
surface of one of the cerebral hemispheres, in the Chimpanzee's and
in the human brain, we find them to be as 1 to 28*5 in the ape, and
1 to 12 -5 in man ; so that the corpus callosum is more than twice as
large, proportionally to the size of the brain, in man, as it is in the
Chimpanzee. We may add, that the corpus callosum in our specimen
is exactly of the same length as in Schroeder van der Kolk's figure,
whilst the brain itself is a little longer. As in man, the corpus
callosum of the ape, is thickest behind. The section of the anterior
commissure is not so round as in the human brain, but it is propor-
tionally as large. The posterior commissure also exists, but it is
small. The so-called soft commissure is large. On the whole then,
the system of transverse commissural fibres is defective in the Chim-
panzee, as compared with man ; and as the section of the medulla
oblongata, hi the former, is even larger in proportion to the cerebrum,
than in the latter, it would seem as if the relative deficiency of white
substance within the hemispheres, already noticed, is, to a great degree,
owing to the fewness of these, as well as other, commissural fibres.
Of the longitudinal system of commissures, the fornix is thin ; the
taenia semicircularis is only just recognisable ; and the striae longitu-
dinales are slender.

Of the middle and fifth ventricles, nothing is to be remarked.
The fourth is very wide, corresponding in this respect with the cere-
bellum. The lateral ventricle, examined on the right hemisphere,
proved to be a very large cavity. It consisted, as in man, of a body
(fig. 5), ## and three cornua ; an anterior cornu #, a descending
cornu (of which only the commencement is seen) ; and a very
obvious, posterior cornu. * * * The body measured 12/10ths of
an inch long, the anterior cornu 6/10ths, the posterior cornu
nearly 5/10ths, and the descending cornu 20/10ths ; whereas in the
human brain, these parts measured respectively, 21/10ths, 14/10ths,
12/10ths and 26/10ths of an inch. Comparing these dimensions
with the lengths of the two brains, (44/10ths, and 65/10ths of an inch)
we get as ratios for the Chimpanzee, "207, '103, *18 and -45 to 1,
and for man, '32, -21, "184 and '4 to 1. From this we perceive that
the lateral ventricle was proportionally longer in the human brain,
except as regards the descending cornu ; and that the posterior
cornu was only fractionally longer. It is worthy of note, as may
be seen by comparing the dissected with the undissected side of fig.
5, that, in the ape, the body of the lateral ventricle corresponds
almost exactly with the parietal lobe of the hemisphere, P, whilst the
anterior cornu projects into the frontal lobe, F, and the posterior
runs, beyond the vertical fissure, into the occipital lobe, O : the de-
scending cornu of course occupies the temporo-sjohenoidal lobe,
Fig. 4, T. In the human brain, the same relations are observed,
together with a coincidence in the measurements of the parts. In
our Chimpanzee's brain, the posterior cornu begins at a line, midway

MARSHALL OX THE EIU1X or A VoUXG CHIMPANZEE. 313

between Ike hinder end of the corpus eallosnm and the internal perpen-
dicular fissure. The widths of the cornna of the lateral ventricle vary
according as their sides are held asunder, but they are large cavities.
About the same proportionate quantities of corpus striatum and optic
thalamus are seen in the anterior coram and body of the ventricle,
as in man. In fig. 5, the thin curved margin of the fornix, with the
rounder commencement of the hippocampus major, are seen entering
the descending cornu. On the inner side of the floor of the posterior
cornu is a convex eminence, the hippocampus minor. Between the bend
of the hippocampus major and the hippocampus minor is a triangular
eminence, also prolonged into the posterior cornu ; this is a small pes
accessorius or eminentia colJateralis. All the parts to be found in
the human posterior cornu are thus represented in the Chimpanzee,
m proof of which we may refer to the irrefragable evidence of the
photograph, fig. 5. A comparison of the natural parts with Schroe-
der van der Kolk's and Yrolik's figure, 4, Plate II., — which is so dif-
ferently interpreted just now, being equally quoted* to show the pre-
sence and the absence, in the Quadrumanous brain, of the same parts,
viz. the posterior lobes, the posterior cornu, and the hippocampus minor,
has compelled me to the conclusion that, although those anatomists
have had to dissect a displaced and deformed posterior lobe, and have
removed its substance rather freely, still the eminence figured, and
marked e, by them, is really a Idppocampus minor. To make this clear
we may refer to the annexed sketch, fig. A., drawn by myself from
nature, in which the parts are shown of their true size.

Pig. A.

Fig. A. O, occipital lobe. T, temporo-sphenoidal lobe. Th, back of thalamus
opticus. V, internal perpendicular fissure. H, part of fissure of hippocampus, a,
hinder part of body of lateral ventricle, b, descending cornu. c, posterior cornu.
dd, hippocampus major, e, hippocampus minor. At J) the small eminentia col-
lateralis ; both of the latter extend into the posterior cornu. g, fascia dentata. h,
continuation of fornix or corpus fimbriatum.

* By Professor Huxley, in this Journal, p. 76 ; and by Professor Owen, in the
recent No. (June 1861) of the Annals and Mag. of Nat, History, p. 456.

314 OEIGINAL ARTICLES.

The hippocampus minor, as in man, corresponds, on the surface
of the Chimpanzee's brain, with the upper of the two deep hidden
sulci at the bottom of the fissure of the hippocampus ; and the emi-
nentia collateralis with the lower of those sulci. Hence, as already
deduced from other considerations, even the presence of this fissure,
without its sulci and the corresponding projections into a posterior
cornu, would suffice to identify corresponding parts of the cerebral
hemisphere. The remaining points, which seem worthy of notice,
are the following. The hippocampus major corresponded to a thick
rolled convolution and sulcus ; its lower end, fig. A, d' was much ex-
panded, and, what I shall call, to avoid confusion, its convex border
was twice, though feebly, indented. The fascia dentata was quite
distinct. Of the corpora quadrigemina, the upper pair were the
larger, but the less prominent. The pineal body was large, soft, and
contained no gritty particles. The habenuhe were distinct. The
pituitary body was large, and wider than deep. The corpora albi-
cantia were beautifully seen, quite distinct from each other, and
connected, as in man, with the anterior pillars of the fornix. On the
medulla oblongata, the corpora olivaria were neatly defined and of
good size ; and the decussation of the pyramids was very prettily
seen. In some of these points Macartney's description is not quite
correct.

Lastly, all the parts of the cerebellum, so far as I have yet ex-
amined them, are the same as in the human encephalon ; only the
lateral hemispheres are wider and flatter. I have still preserved this
and also the left half of the brain, on which I propose some day
to follow the arrangement of the fibres.

I may be permitted to add, in conclusion, that my sole object in
this paper has been to record the results of an anatomical investigation.
I have no theory, zoological, or physiological, to support ; I have no
leaning towards any of the developmental hypotheses of the origin of
species. But, on the question of facts, and the interpretation of those
facts, my results, as to the existence of a posterior lobe, of a posterior
cornu, and of a hippocampus minor, in the Chimpanzee, will be found
to harmonize with the investigations and conclusions of Prof. Huxley
and of Prof. Allen Thomson, already published in this Review.

Description of the Figures in Plate VI.

N.B. — Nearly all the figures are, as nearly as may be, two-thirds the linear
dimensions of the objects.

Tig. 1. Under view of a plaster cast of the interior of the Chimpanzee's skull,
taken before the membranes were removed from the base; (from a photograph.)
F F, frontal lobes of the cerebrum; T T, temporo-sphenoidal lobes; 0 O, occipital
lobes; V, pons Varolii; M, medulla oblongate; C C, cerebellum.

Fig. 2. Under view, or base of the Chimpanzee's brain, hardened in spirit, Avith
the pia mater and arachnoid taken away. Intended to show the displacement of
the parts, especially of the cerebellum, from their natural positions; (from a photo-

MARSHALL OX THE BRAIN OF A YOUNG CHIMPANZEE. 315

graph.) The capital letters as in fig. 1 ; 8, the external inferior temporal convolu-
tion ; 9, the middle inferior temporal convolution ; * the convolution of the
hippocampus major.

Fig. 3. Left side view of the plaster cast shown in fig. 1. Intended to show
the natural rounded form of the brain, and the position of its parts ; (from a photo-
graph.) The capital letters the same as in figs. 1 and 2, except P, which indicates
the parietal lobe of the cerebrum.

Fig. 4. Photographic view of the left side of the Chimpanzee's brain. F, P,
O, T, frontal, parietal, occipital and temporal, lobes of the cerebrum ; R, fissure of
Rolando; V, external perpendicular, or vertical fissure; S, Sylvian fissure; C, cere-
bellum; as in fig. 5: 1, inferior frontal convolution; 2, middle frontal convolution;
3, 3', superior frontal convolution; 4, 4, first ascending parietal convolution; 5, 5,
second ascending parietal convolution; 5', 5", lobule of the second ascending con-
volution; 6, 6', bent convolution (pli courbe); 6', its descending part; 7, 7, superior
external temporal or marginal convolution; 8, 8, middle external temporal con-
volution; 9, inferior temporal convolution; 10, superior occipital convolution; the
operculum is the anterior border of this convolution immediately behind the vertical
fissure V; 11, middle occipital convolution; 12, inferior occipital convolution; c,
third external connecting convolution (pli de passage) : d, fourth external connecting
convolution.

Fig. 5. Photographic view of the upper surface of the Chimpanzee's brain ; the
right half being dissected to show the lateral ventricle and its cornua. Most of the
letters generally as in fig. 4. L, the longitudinal fissure. On the left side, 5', 5",
are the external and internal convolutions of the lobule of the second ascending
convolution; 10, 10', the superior occipital convolution, — the operculum being the
edge in front of 10, 10'. The first connecting convolution (pli de passage) is absent;
its seat, when present, is a little to the left of 10. The second connecting convolu-
tion is hidden under the operculum, in front of 10'; * is opposite to the anterior
cornu of the lateral ventricle, * * level with the body, and * * * with the posterior
cornu. In the latter, are seen, to the inner side or left-hand, the hippocampus
minor; in front of this is the bent end of the hippocampus major entering, with the
fornix, into the descending cornu; between them is a small triangular portion of the
small eminentia collateralis. Compare with the woodcut A, in which the whole
extent of the hippocampus major is shown.

XXXII. — Anatomical Notes. — By Professor Hyrtl of the
University of Vienna.

[Professor Hyrtl has kindly promised to favour me, from time to
time, with the communication of a series of his Anatomical Notes ;
some of which will be found in the future proceedings or trans-
actions of the K. K. Akademie der Wissenchaften, Wien. But as
these are not published at any fixed periods, it will very generally
happen that the epitome of such papers given in these pages, will
have some months priority over the more detailed descriptions given
in the Publications of the Academy. Some few, perhaps, will be
familiar to those learned in German Bibliography, but will probably
still be new to most readers ; others, again, will be printed here for
the first time. It is but justice to Professor Hyrtl, well known to
be an excellent English scholar, that I should hold myself respon-
sible for the English of these notes, and I trust that the sense, at
least, of what my friend would say, will always be given, even though

810 ORIGINAL ARTICLES.

I may not have succeeded in translating into very terse or elegant
language, some of the more complex of the compound German
words.— E. P. W.]

1. — On Aiian gious Retinas.

In the xxxiii. volume of the " Sitzungsberiehte der naturwiss. Classe
der kais. Akademie der "Wissenchafteii zu Wien," I published a trea-
tise on hearts devoid of nutritive blood-vessels. (TJeber gefiisslose
Herzen). I there demonstrated, by microscopical investigations, that
the heart, in all the Amphibia, presents the remarkable peculiarity,
that the Arteria coronaria, which arises from one* of the first
branches, into which the Bulbus arteriosus splits, and at some dis-
tance from the heart, supplies only the Bulbus arteriosus itself ; and
that not the smallest arterial branch enriches the muscular substance
of the Yentriculus, or of the Atrium cordis.

I have likewise demonstrated, that the heart of Sauria, Ophidia,
and Chelonia, is also partially deprived of blood-vessels ; in them,
the outermost layer of the muscular stratum of the heart, possesses,
like all the other muscles, a capillary network, but still, the greater
part of the heart-mass is entirely destitute of nutritive blood-vessels.
This is the case, too, with all the osseous Eishes, while the more
highly organised Kays and Sharks have, like warm-blooded ani-
mals, the coronary arteries distributed to the whole muscular coat of
their hearts. In the paper, alluded to, I have stated the reason why
such an apparent anomaly is, in these several cases, quite in accordance
with physiological principles ; and I need not further allude to the
matter here. My reason for referring to it at all is that I have now
met with the same exclusion of all nutritive arteries, in a different
organ, and not only is the organ one of similar importance, but it
also presents so constantly this state of anangia (a priv. — ayyelor),
that the latter becomes almost an anatomical characteristic of certain
classes of Vertebrata.

The retina of all Birds, Eeptiles, Amphibia and Eish, osseous
and cartilaginous, contains not the slightest trace of blood-vessels, so
that the vascularity of the retina occurs only in the Mammalia. I
communicated a short notice of this interesting anatomical fact to
the Academy of Sciences in Eebruary, which will not, however, be
printed until towards the end of the year (1861), as there are many
prior papers for publication. Hence, I have thought, that a note of
the existence of these anangious retinas would not be without interest
for the readers of the Natural History Eeview. I trust, that those
engaged in optical inquiries, will see the importance of this disco-
very, for the assertion of physicists, that the blood-vessels of the
retina must absorb some of the rays of light, and so cause certain

* Arteria carotico-lingualis ; miki.

PROFESSOU HYBTIik ANATOMICAL NOTES. 317

imperfections in the vision of minute objects, cannot hold as true for
all eyes, now that the existence of bloodless retinas is an established
fact.

The retina then, of four classes of vertebrate animals is not nou-
rished by the direct intervention of the circulatory system, and
can be preserved in health and vigour, only by some endosmotic
process.

And here I may mention, that this endosmotic action is limited
in birds to the choroid surface alone. In the other three classes,
Reptiles, Amphibia and Fish, absorption, on the contrary, may take
place both from it and from the hyaloid membrane. This latter
membrane, as I was the first to show, many years ago,* is in
some reptilia and amphibia a highly vascular one, and late investi-
gations of mine have made it evident, that the hyaloidea of all
fishes perfectly resembles that of the reptiles alluded to, in the rich-
ness of its supply of blood-vessels. The result of these investigations
I reserve for a special treatise on the vascularity of the hyaloidea
of fish. This subject is one well worth further investigation.

2. On some peculiarities of 'the gills of Lutodeira Chanos Forsk.

I have had an opportunity of investigating the anatomy of this
very rare and most valuable fish, and have discovered the following
modifications to exist in its respiratory apparatus, which though
partially found in some other clupeid and salmonoid fish, yet are
most fully developed only in this genus.

Attached to the gills there is an accessory respiratory organ, pre-
senting the form of a tube, partly membranous, partly cartilaginous ;
this tube is twisted upon itself like a helix, one and a half-times, and
is of equal calibre throughout : its length is one inch and three quar-
ters and its diameter is two lines. It is situated above the fourth

* I do not care much to claim the right of priority in scientific questions. That
some new fact has been demonstrated, is well; it matters not who was the happy
demonstrator; but I may infer, as a proof of the feeble renown of Austrian science,
that my discovery of the blood-vessels in the hyaloidea of reptilia and amphibia,
made when I was a young man (Med. Jahrbiicher des Osten. Staater, Band 15)
had not reached England when Mr. J. Quekett wrote bis " Observations on the
vascularity of the Capsule of the Crystalline Lens, especially in certain Reptilia."
(Trans. Microscop. Soc. of London, Vol. III. 1850).f I made the first injection of
the Hyaloidea of Coluber and Kana in the year 1831. The preparations are now
in the Anatom. Museum of our University, and duplicates were sent in 1832 to
Prof. Retzius in Stockholm, and 1837, to Prof. T. Midler in Berlin.

f In a note to me, Prof. Hyrtl adds, that in all the Saurians and Chelonians
there is no vascular hyaloidea, and that even among the amphibia, the Sozura —
(Salamander, Triton, Amphuima, &c.) have a bloodless hyaloid. Professor Quekett
erred in mistaking the hyaloidea for the capsule of the lens. In the frog the lens
is very large, and the* vitreous humour very small, so that in spirit specimens it
almost disappears, and then the hyaloid membrane embraces the posterior portion
of the lens so as to be easily mistaken for a capsule.

318 ORIGINAL ARTICLES.

branchial arch, whose epibrancliial segment (Owen) is expanded into
a broad triangular plate ; the accessory organ lies upon this plate in
such a manner, that the axis of its spiral canal keeps a perpendicular
direction throughout.

The right and left organs communicate by a common aperture
with the roof of the pharynx, immediately behind the toothed pha-
ryngo-branchial segments (Owen, pharyngiens superieurs Cuv.) The
lining membrane of these organs is very vascular, and fine injection
proved beyond contradiction, that their arteries are but prolonga-
tions of those which bring the venous blood to the gills. Their veins
unite with the root of the aorta, and must, therefore, contain arterial-
ised blood. On the inner border of the twisted tube there is a
double row of fringes, of the consistency of cartilage, and a groove
lies between the two rows, but there is no interspace* like a branchial
cleft.

Our great anatomist Johannes Muller, threw out a hint of the
existence of this organ in his admirable work " Bau und Grenzen der
Ganoiden," p. 74 et seq. ; but the specimen which he had for dissec-
tion was probably so defective as to cause him entirely to overlook
its peculiar snail-like convolution, and he only speaks of the above
mentioned double series of fringes, which he declared to be a true
biserial gill. Careful investigation of well injected preparations, has,
however, satisfactorily convinced me, that the biserial gill of Muller
is not a respiratory gill, but simply a continuation of the peculiar
horny fringes, which are attached to the concave border of the bran-
chial arches in many Clupeid and Scomberoid fish, and which serve
as combs, or gratings, to intercept any solid particle swallowed, which
if forced through the interspaces of the branchial arches would, most
certainly, injure the very delicate vascular net-work, supported by the
slender and compressed processes of the gill fringes.

A very large branch of the pneumogastric nerve supplies the
inner side of this organ (to which I give the name of Cochlea
branchialis), and it strikes me that its mucous membrane may be
capable of receiving some special sensation. The organ is surrounded
by a strongly developed muscular coat, so that the water contained
in it can, by the contraction of the muscles, be easily expelled
through the same orifice by which, on dilatation, it enters.

On a former occasionf I have pointed out that some of the true
clupeid fish, as Meletta, Chatoessus, Chipanodon, Gonostoma, &c

* In a note Prof. Hyrtl says — The branchial clefts are very long and narrow
in all clupeid fish, and the fringes on the convex border of the branchial arches
are of so delicate an organization and possess such an extremely fine capillary net-
work, that all the clupeid fish die the instant they are taken out of the water.
Prof. Hyrtl suggests that hence the origin of " As dead as a herring."

[The only objection to this explanation which occurs to us is that, as all who
have seen herrings caught, know very well, the fish do not die the instant they come
out of the water ; nor indeed sooner than many other fisb. — Eds.]

t Denkscbriften der K. K. Akademie der Wissenschaften, Wien. lOBd.pag. 47,
" Ueber die acccssorischen Kicmenorgane der Clupeaceen."

PEOFESSOTC HYim/s ANATOMICAL NOTES. 310

are also provided with a cocldca hranchialis, to which, the organ

described in Lutodeira, is, in its form, structure and uses, quite
similar.

I may add that a few genera of the Salmones (Cuv.) or rather Cha-
racini (Miill.) viz. Prochilodus and Citharinus, also possess an acces-
sory respiratory organ, well supplied with nerves from the Vagus ; it
is situated above their gill chambers, and is either a straight blind
chamber, or has a curved sac-like form, in both cases receiving venous
blood from the heart, and returning red blood to the base of the
aorta. My friend, Professor Kner, a short time since, showed me
the same organ in Anodus.

The following peculiarities in the structure of the gills of
Lutodeira are unique, no other clupeoid or characine fish affording a
trace of them : —

1st. Each interspace between the branchial arches is divided into a
superior and inferior compartment by a short, strong and non-elastic
ligament, which unites the articulations of the basi- and cerato-branchial
bones (Owen) of each arch, with the like articulations of the same
bones, opposite to them. The branchial arches therefore cannot be
divaricated from one another, and their interspaces, the branchial
clefts, cannot be so much dilated as in other fish, but they remain
permanently in a state of extreme narrowness, and the current of
water which passes through them, must necessarily be very small.

2nd. The cartilaginous combs, or fringes, attached to the concave
borders of the branchial arches, are set in two rows on each arch ; these
two rows are likewise divergent, so that the tips of the fringes of the
outside row of one arch, meet the tips of the fringes of the inside
row of the next one. The tips of each pair of fringes firmly coalesce
and cannot be separated without breaking them. Each branchial
cleft is therefore bridged over by a succession of gothic arches,
equal in number to the cartilaginous filaments in every fringe, and
there is no free passage for the current of water. The wrater is,
therefore, it may be said, filtered through the coalesced fringes,
whose tips are directed towards the mouth, and, whatever may be
the amount of heterogenous particles in the water, they must be with
certainty caught between the pallisades, just as a fish is caught in a
net ; the surprising length, fineness and delicacy of the respiratory
branchial lamella? on the convex edges of the branchial arches, and
the excessive richness of their capillary net-work of vessels, are such
as fully to account for all these elaborate guards against mechanical
injury to so frail an organism.

3. On a peculiar arrangement of the Gill chamber in Poly acanthus.

This fish, one of the Labyrmthida>, presents a very peculiar ar-
rangement of its gill chambers.

VOL. I. — ]ST. H E. 2 T

320 OEIGINAL ARTICLES.'

The first five vertebras are each furnished with four ribs instead of
two ; this is quite a unique arrangement in the osteology of fishes.
These supernumerary ribs are attached to the sides of the neural-
spine (Owen) far above the neural arch. They are somewhat
shorter than the true ribs, which are articulated to the bodies of
the vertebrae. But they are so curved, that the inferior end of each
reaches to its corresponding true rib, and articulates with the latter
near its head. The first supernumerary rib is the longest, and the
others gradually decrease until the last, which is the shortest.

A dense fibrous membrane lines the spaces which intervene be-
tween these ribs, so that there exists, on each side of the dorsal spine,
and covered over by the superior muscles of the vertebral column,
a long conical cavity, whose apex is directed upwards and backwards,
and whose base opens downwards into the branchial cavity. In
this cavity is lodged a good deal of the branchial labyrinth of the
fish.

The labyrinth of Poly acanthus is not of the complicated nature
of that of Anabas, JETelossonia, or Osphromenus, but, in the simplicity
of its structure, more resembles that of OphiocepJialus ; it is com-
posed of but three heliciform lamellae, which, however, make up in
length, what they want in the sub-division of their lamelliform sur-
faces, and are so long that they cannot be sufficiently protected by
the upper portions of the tympano-maxillary and humero- scapular
arches.

An organ like the labyrinth of this fish, with such important
functions to perforin, could not well be lodged in the trunk, where
it would be in the way of powerfully acting muscles, but it is quite
securely situated, under the rib-like protection of this kind of thorax,
formed by the five pairs of accessory ribs.

No other known Labyrinthoid fish (I have them all in abun-
dance) presents a similar anomaly.

4. Some results of isolated Arterial Injections.

Isolated arterial injections are in many respects very instructive ;
by " isolated injection " I mean the injection of the minute arteries,
not of those supplying an extremity, or other large portion of the
body ; these latter will never give the same clear idea of the province
which belongs to each small arterial branch, whilst the isolated injec-
tion of the minute arteries shows the boundaries of the territories,
which are irrigated by certain sets of blood-vessels. When an
organ receives several arteries, then the isolated injection of each
with differently coloured injections, will show, in a most satisfactory
manner, what portion of the organ is supplied by each branch. So
far as the nervous system is concerned, anatomists have marked out
the districts over which the ultimate nervous ramifications spread ;

PEOFESSOE HYETLS ANATOMICAL NOTES. 321

the same might be done for the arterial system by means of these
isolated injections, and most beautiful and instructive preparations
can be obtained by injecting, with differently coloured materials, the
arteries of the conjunctiva, the mucous membrane of the nostrils, or
the lining membrane of the mouth, pharynx, urinary bladder, &c.

The following results of a long series of such injections may
merit attention, as some of them are of high practical importance.

COEONAEY AETEEIES.

When a single coronary artery of the heart is injected, the other
(say the right) remains empty, showing that there is no anasto-
mosis between the primary, or secondary, ramifications of these two
arteries, in the circular and longitudinal grooves of the surface of the
heart, as all anatomists say they have observed. When the injection
passes from one artery to the other, it is always through the inter-
vention of the capillary system that the communication takes place ;
never through the ^oft-capillary system ; hence it follows, that the
right and left hearts are, to this extent, independent as far as regards
their arterial circulation.

Aeteeia lingtjalis.

The same is likewise the case with the right and left lingual
arteries. When the right lingual artery is injected with colouring
matter, only one-half of the tongue becomes coloured, the other half
remaining as it is. If the assumed anastomosis really existed between
the two arteries (forming an arch in the top of the tongue) the injec-
tion of the one artery would certainly fill that of the opposite side.

Aeteeia laeyngea supeeioe.

When the Arteria laryngea superior is separately injected, it is
necessary to put a ligature on the Art. thyreoidea inferior of the
same side, because there is a very extensive anastomosis between the
former and the laryngeal branch of the latter ; this anastomosis will
be found in the interior of the larynx (between the thyroid and cricoid
cartilages) ; perhaps this fact admits of, the following interpretation :
The superior laryngeal artery is not exposed to muscular compres-
sion, but the inferior thyroid, which gives a branch to the larynx,
may occasionally be compressed by vehement contraction of the
muscles under which it wends its way. The intra-laryugeal anas-
tomosis of both is so arranged, that the necessary supply of blood
cannot be stopped by such compression.

322

ORIGINAL ARTICLES.

Uterine Arteries, &c.

In the uteri of children, of which I have several well injected
preparations, the right and left arteries appear to he as independent
as those of the heart. An injection of the arteries of one side is always
followed by the perfect filling of the vessels of that side, and the absence
of injection in the other. However, in the vagina, and more espe-
cially in the bladder, there are large anastomoses between the right
and left arteries of these organs, a circumstance which is of some im-
portance in the development of certain pathological changes. When, in
man, there are two, three, four, or even (as sometimes) five renal arte-
ries, you may inject one, and yet none of the others will be filled, every
one of these arteries having a distinct province of its own. It is the
same case in other Mammalia, when their kidneys have more than
one artery entering at different portions of their surface ; for instance,
when an injection of the horse's kidney is made, one can spare the
injected matter, by selecting any small artery which enters the ex-
ternal surface of the organ (not in the hilus). A minute injection
of a very limited portion of the cortex is thus obtained, and there
is no risk of wasting the injected material by filling other parts, not
required for the preparation.

Menengea media.

An isolated injection of the middle meningeal artery makes it
evident, that this artery is not only destined to be the nutritive artery
of the cranium, but also, that very numerous off-sets of the diploetic
branches pass out to the external surface of the calvarium and ramify
freely throughout the pericranium. When a well injected prepa-
ration of this artery is exposed to the action of weak hydrochloric
acid, the destruction of the earthy matter gives to the skull (after
being well dried and saturated with turpentine) such a degree of
transparency, that the perforating branches of the diploetic arteries
can be distinguished with the greatest facility.

Arteria occipitalis.

It happens very often, that the occipital artery seems to send a
branch through the mastoid foramen ; it is very commonly believed
that this branch appertains to the dura mater, and is an accessory
nutritive artery (Art. meningea externa accessoria). Now, when a
series of isolated injections of the occipital artery are made, it is
easy to show that, in many instances, the artery which passes into the
mastoid foramen does not pass through' it, and that it is, therefore, no
meningeal artery. The hammer and chisel, or the help of muriatic

PROFESSOR 1IYRTL S ANATOMICAL NOTES.

acid, will prove that the before-mentioned arterial branch ramifies
th rough the diploe, reaching as far as the parietal bone. I have, for
this reason, called it the Art. diploetica magna, and I consider it to be
an attempt of nature to reproduce, in man, the great diploetic artery
which some years ago I discovered in the large Edentata,* as a
branch of the very large occipital artery, and which, in these animals,
penetrates the very dense diploe of the bones of the cranium as far as
the lamina cribrosa of the ethmoid, when it escapes, and is lost, with
the olfactory nerves, in the mucous membrane of the nose.

Even when, as is sometimes the case, this branch of the human
occipital artery passes right through the mastoid foramen, and actu-
ally reaches the dura mater, yet a comparison of the diameter of the
artery as it enters, with that of the artery as it makes its exit
through the foramen, will show a very striking difference in size ;
the artery, as it makes its appearance at the inner side of the mas-
toid foramen, not having half the diameter that it possessed on its
entrance into the foramen, and, even in these cases, it sends a very
considerable off-shoot to the diploe.

LlGAMENTTTM TEEES.

It is said in most works on anatomy, that this ligament serves to
conduct nutritive blood-vessels to the head and neck of the femur.
I venture to doubt this general assertion, on the strength of isolated
injections of the arteria obturatoria, under the pectineus muscle.
These injections have proved, that all the capillary vessels in the
ligamentum teres are, at the point where this latter is inserted into
the oval depression on the head of the femur, reflected back again into
veins, forming a large number of fine capillary loops, which form a
very interesting object. When a vertical section of this ligament is
made, no arterial vessel can be singled out, passing from the liga-
ment to the bony substance of the head of the femur ; but if
you inject the perforating artery, of which the nutritive artery of
the femur is a branch, you will obtain a very satisfactory micro-
scopical injection of the interior of the bone; and, in a vertical sec-
tion of the injected femur, one may trace the vessels to the very
insertion of the ligamentum teres itself, without finding a trace of
even the minutest branch passing into it. Further there is no
anastomosis between the vessels of the round ligament and those of
the medullary cavity, which must have been the case were the
blood-vessels of the former destined to nourish the frame- work of the
reticulated interior of the head of the femur.

* Vide " Ueber das Gefassystem der Edentaten." Denkschriften der Kait
Acad. Wissenchaft. Wien. vol. vi. 1854.

324 ORIGINAL ARTICLES.

Arteria ALDITORIA INTERNA.

Perhaps the most important result which I have obtained from
a long series of isolated injections, has been yielded by injecting the
internal auditory artery in man and other mammals ; but this artery is
so very small that it is quite impossible to introduce into it even the
smallest injection tube, so that it is necessary to proceed to inject
it in another way.

Place a ligature round the basilar artery, immediately in front
of the origin of the internal auditory, just behind which the basilar
artery may be easily fitted with an injection tube of tolerable dimen-
sions ; the injection being then prevented by the ligature from pene-
trating far into the basilar artery, must pass along into the auditory
branch with all the requisite force. Next inject, in the same subject,
the middle meningeal artery, with a differently coloured injection ;
both these injections must be composed of very fine materials. The
investigator will now perceive that the labyrinth is supplied by the
auditory artery, while the surrounding substance of the petrous bone
is supplied by branches of the meningeal.

I shall not now enter into more details; these I reserve for
another occasion ; but, I may state that this independence of the cir-
culations of the labyrinth and of the petrous bone, will account for the
very interesting observations made by several French surgeons, and
proved by many convincing pathological preparations, in my osteolo-
gical collection, that a caries tem/porum may corrode away almost the
whole of the petrous bone, without destroying the sense of hearing ;
and that the cochlea of a human ear, together with the vestibulum,
may be exfoliated through a like caries, just as if prepared by the
skilled hand of the anatomist, because the two having separate and
independent circulations, each may preserve its integrity apart for a
long time.

I have in my possession a very neat looking cochlea, which was
taken out, with a forceps, from the external auditory meatus of an
otorrhoic patient by a friend of mine, who is Surgeon to a suburban
district in Prague.

325

(I860, continued.)
ZOOLOGICAL.

XXXIIL— Molltjsca.
1. General and Mixed.

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Southern India by Lieut. Charles Annesley Benson. Ann. N. H.
3 ser. vi. p. 257.

Blaneoed, "W". T. and H. F. — Contributions to Indian Malacology.
As. Soc. Journ. 1860, p. 117.

Bouegeignat, J. R. — Malacologie terrestre de Tile du Chateau d'If.
2 plates. Paris.

Chentt, J. C. — Manuel de Conchy liologie et de Paleontologie con-
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Paris, 1860.

Conead, T. A.— Notes on Shells. Phil. Acad. Proc. 1860, p. 231.

Dickie, G-. — Remarks on the Mollusca of Aberdeenshire. Rep. Brit.
Ass. 1859. Trans. Sect. p. 147.

Deouet, H. — Essai sur les Mollusques terrestres et fluviatiles de la
Guyane Francaise. 4 plates, 8vo. Paris, 1860.

Gtiunti, S. B. — Descrizione di alcune specie malacologiche nuove che
vivono nel nostro littorale. Memoria Ila. Catan. Acad. Gioen. xiv.

Haidingee. — Sammlung recenter Conchylien. Geschenk von Sir "W.
T. Denison, in Sydney, N.S.W. Yien. Sitz. 1860.

Jeeeeets, J. G. — Remarks on Mr. M' Andrew's " Note on the Com-
parative size of Marine Mollusca, in various Latitudes of the Eu-
ropean Seas." A. N. H. 3 ser. v. p. 197.

Lea, Isaac. — Descriptions of Fourteen New Species of ScMnostomcc,
Anculosm and Lithasice. Phil. Acad. Proc. 1860, p. 186.

Lewis, J. M. D. — Catalogue of the Molluscs in the vicinity of Mo-
hawk, New York. Phil. Acad. Proc. 1860, p. 17.

Lowe, R. T. — A List of the Shells observed or collected at Mogador
and in its immediate environs during a few days visit to the place
in April, 1859. J. P. L. S. v. p. 169.

Macdonald, J. D. — On the Homologies of the so-called Univalve
Shell and its operculum. J. P. L. & v. p. 204.

M'Andeew, R. — Note on the Comparative Size of Marine Mollusca
in various Latitudes of the European Seas. Aim. N. H. 3 ser.
v. p. 116.

Maego, Ph. — Ueber die Mukelfasern der Mollusken. Moleschott's
Untersuchungen. vii. 2.

Maetens, Dr. E. von. — On the Mollusca of Siam. Proc. Zool. Soc.
1860, p. 6.

320 BIBLIOGRAPHY.

Mabtini u. Chemnitz. — Systematisches Conch ylien- Cabinet. Neu

hrsg. von H. C. Kiister. Part 171. 7 col. plates, 4to. Nurn-

berg.
Moebch, O. A. L. — Beitrage z. Molluskenfauna Central- Amerikax.

Mai. B. iv. p. 170.
Pease, "W. PIabpeb. — Description of new Species of Mollusca from

the Sandwich Islands. Proc. Zool. Soc. 1860, p. 18, 111.
Descriptions of three Species of Marine Shells from the

Pacific Ocean. Proc. Zool. Soc. 1860, p. ISO.
Pfeiffeb, L. — Novitates conchologicse. Abbildung mid Beschrei-

bnng nener Conchylien. Eigures et descriptions de coquilles

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Petnce, Temple. — Descriptions of New Shells from the Collection of

H. Cuming, Esq. Proc. Zool. Soc. 1860, p. 319.
Tibebi, N. — Descrizione di alcuni nuovi testacei yiventi nel Medi-

terraneo. 2 plates, 8vo. Napoli.

2. Cephalopliora.

Adams, Abthue. — On some new Genera and Species of Mollusca,
from Japan. Ann. N. H. 3 ser. v. p. 299, 405, 477, vi. p. 118,
331, 414.

Notes on the Animals of certain Genera of Mollusca. Ann.

N. H. 3 ser. vi. p. 109.

On the Animal of Umbonium vestiarium. Ann. N. Hist.,

3 ser. vi. p. 288.
Adams, H. — Description of a new Genus and Species of Mollusk

(Acrilla gracilis). P. Z. S. No. 429, p. 241.
Albebs, J. C. — Die Heliceen nach naturlicher Verwandtschaft sys-

tematisch geordnet. 2. Ausgabe clach clem hinterlassenen Mskr.

besorgt von Ed. v. Martens. 8vo. Leipzig, 1860.
Antitony, J. G. — Descriptions of new Species of American Eluvia-

tile Gasteropods. Phil. Acad. Proc. 1860, p. 55.
Benson, W. H. — On the Burmese Genus Sophina. Ann. N. Hist.

3 ser. v. p. 26.
On CIostop7iis and RMostoma, new Burmese Genera of Land

Shells. Ann. N. H. 3 ser. v. p. 95.
Characters of new Cingalese Land Shells, collected by E.

Layard, Esq. Ann. N. Hist. 3 ser. v. p. 381.
On new Land Shells, from Darjiling, with a Series of new

Indian Species of Achatina. Arm. N. H. 3 ser. v. p. 460.
. Notes on the Subgenus Gorilla, H. and A. Adams ; and on

the group Plectopylis, Benson ; also on Pollicena, Gould, and

Hyboajstis, Benson. Ann. N. H. 3 ser. vi. p. 98.
Characters of new Land Shells from Burmah and the Anda-

mans. Ann. N. H. 3 ser. vi. p. 190.

MOLLTISCA. 327

Benson, W. H.— Notes on Plectopylis, a group of BJelicidse distin-
guished by several internal plicate Epipkragms, with the Charac-
ters of a new Species. Ann. Nat. Hist. vi. p. 213.

Notes on lantliina, Bolten ; and Indication of a new Species

of the allied Oceanic Genus, Beclusia, Petit. A. N.H. 3 ser, vi.
p. 405.

Binney, W. G-.— The Terrestrial Air-Breathing Mollusks of the
United States and the adjacent Territories of North America.
Vol. IV. 4 col. plates, 8vo. Boston.

Notes on American Land Shells, No. 6. Phil. Acad. Proc.

1S60, p. 150.

Descriptions of new Species of Pulmonata, in the Collection

of the Smithsonian Institution. Phil. Acad. Proc. 1860, p. 154.

Bourgignat, J. E. — Monographic du genre Choctnomplialos. 2 platen
Rev. d. Zool. 1860, p. 507.

■ Catalogue des Mollusqnes de la famille des Paludinees re-

cueillis en Siberie et sur le territoire de l'Ainur. Rev. de Zool.
1860, p. 531.

Collingwood, Cuthbert. — On the Nudibranchiate Mollusca in-
habiting the estuary of the Dee. Ann. N. H. 3 ser. vi. p. 196.

Damon, Robert. — List of Mollusca found in the neighbourhood of
Jerusalem. Ann. N. Hist. 3 ser. vi. p. 312.

Foster, Michael.— On the Beat of the Snail's Heart. Rep. Brit.
Ass. 1859 (Trans. Sect. p. 160).

Garner, Robert. — On Reproduction in Gasteropoda, and on some
curious Effects of Endosmosis. Rep. Brit. Ass. 1859 (Trans.
Sect. p. 162).

Gerstfeldt, G. — Ueber Land-u. Siisswasser Mollusken Sibiriens u.
d. Amurgebietes. plate, 4to. Petersb. 1860.

Gray, J. E. — On the Bitentaculate Slug from Aneiteum. Ann. N.
H. 3 ser. vi. p. 195.

On the Arrangement of the Land Pulmoniferous Mollusca

into Families. Ann. N. Hist. 3 ser. vi. p. 267.

GuisCARDi, G. — Un nuovo genere di molluschi della famiglia delle
Neritide. Nap. Mem. II. Vien. Sitz. 60.

Heynemann, E. D. — Limax variegatus Drap. Beitrag z. deutschen
Molluskenfauna. plate. Mai. B. iv. p. 165.

Jeffreys, J. Gwyn. — On the Mollusca of the Upper Harz. Ami.
N. Hist. 3 ser. vi. p. 318.

Kefersteen", "W. u. E. Ehlers. Beitrage z. Ivenntniss d. Geseh-
lechtsverhaltnisse v. Helix pomatia. plate. Zeitschr. w. Z. x. 2.

Krohn, A. — Beitrage zur Entwickelungsgeschi elite der Pteropoden
u. Heteropoden. 2 plates. 4to. Leipz.

Krohn, Aug. — Ueber die Schale und die Larven cles Gastcropteron
Meclcelii. (plate). Wigm. Arch., 1860, p. 64.

Lacaze-Duthiers. — Notes respecting the circulation of Gasteropo-
dous Mollusca and the supposed aquiferous apparatus of the
Lamellibranchiata. Roy. Soc. Proc. x. p. 193, 196.
vol. i. — n. h. r. 2 u

328 BIBLIOGRAPHY.

Lacaze-Duthiers. — L'Anatomie et l'Embryologie des Vermet.

3 plates. A. 8. N. xiii. 5.
Memoire sur un point de l'organisation des Yermets (Ver-

metus triqueter). Comp. rend. li. p. 880.
Lea, Isaac. — Descriptions of four new Species of Melanidse of the

United States. Phil. Acad. Proc. 1860, p. 93.
Lowe, R. T. — Description of a new Helix ; and Notice of the oc-
currence of Planorbis glaber Jeffr. in Madeira. Ann. N. H.

3 ser. vi. p. 42.
On the Cyclostomas of Madeira belonging to the Genus

Craspedopoma of Pfeiffer ; with Descriptions of four new Madei-

ran and one new Canarian Species. Ann. N. H. 3 ser. vi. p. 114.
Macdonald, J. Denis. — Further Observations on the Metamorphosis

of Gasteropoda, and the affinities of certain Genera, with an at-
tempted Natural Distribution of the principal Families of the

Order. Linn. Trans, xxiii. p. 69.
Morelet, A. — lies Acores. Notice sur l'histoire naturelle des

Acores, suivi d'un description des mollusques terrestres de cet

archipel. 5 col. plates. 8vo. Paris.
Peeieeer, Dr. L. — Descriptions of Thirty-six new Species of Land

Shells, from Mr. H. Cuming's Collection. Proc. Zool. Soc. I860,

p. 133.
Eedeield, J. H. —Description of a new Species of Marginella. Phil.

Acad. Proc. 1860, p. 174.
Reeve, Lovell. — On two new Species of Shells from Cambojia.

{Helix, Bulimus). Ann. N. H. 3 ser. vi. p. 203.
On Helix Mouhoti. A. N. H. 3 ser. vi. p. 455. (Alters

Helix Mouhoti, Eeeve, into H. Camboijensis, R.
Eomer, Dr. E. — Description of new Species of the Genera Dosinia

and Cyclma, from the Collection of H. Cuming, Esq. Proc. Zool.

Soc. 1860, p. 117.
Sakdberg-er. — Einige Bemerkungen iiber den Naut. umbilicatus

Chem., genabeltes Schiffsboot (lebende Art von den Mollucken).

Yien. Sitz. 59.
Sars. — Udtog af en zoologisk og anatomisk Beskrivelse over Sijrfio-

nodontalium en ny Slcegt af Dentalidernes Eamilie. Eorh. Yid.

Selsk. (Aar. 1859), 1860, p. 182.
Schwartz, G-. — Ueber die Eamilie der Rissoiden und insbesondere

die Gattung Missoina. (4to.) ( ) 1860.
Strobel, P. de— Essai d'une distribution orographico-geographique

des Mollusques terrestres dans la Lombardie. Tur. Mem. xviii.
Theobald, "W. — Description of some new Burmese and Indian HeK-

cidse. Journ. As. Soc. Beng. 1859.
Thompson, AY. (AYeymouth). — On a Species of Eolis and also a

Species of Lomanotus new to science ; with the Description of a

specimen of Eolis coerulea, Mont. A. N. H. 3 ser. v. p. 48.

3. Acephala.
Adams, B. W. — On Coroula rosea, A. N. H. 3 ser. vi. p. 455.

MOLLUSOA. 329

Adams, H. — Description of a new Genus of Freshwater Bivalve

Mollusea, belonging to the Family Corbulidce, from the Collection

of H. Cuming, Esq. Proc. Zool. Soc. 1860, p. 203.
Archer, T. C. — On a Species of Ostrea, taken from the Copper

Sheathing on the bottom of a vessel in the Liverpool Graving

Docks. Ann. N. H. 3 ser. v. p. 401.
Bryson, A. — Notice on the Boring of the Pholadidae. E. S. E.

Proc. 1S60, p. 321.
Clark, "VV. — On the Lepton, salcatulum of Mr. Gwyn Jeffreys. Ann.

N. Hist. 3 ser. v. p. 27.
Dickie, C. — On the structure of the Shell in some species of Pecten.

Eep. Brit. Ass. 1859. Trans. Sect. p. 147.
Fahraeus, O. J. — Om Perliisket och Linne's hemliga konst. Ofvers.

Stockh. 1859.
Gratiolet, P. — Eecherches pour servir a l'histoire cles Brachiopodes,

(2 Monog.) Arch. Sc. Phys. et Nat. 1860, p. 247. (from Journ.

de Conchyliologie.)
Hessling, Von. — Ueber die Befruchtung der Elussperlenmuschel, Z.

w. Z. x. p. 358.
Jeffreys, J. Gwyn. — Note in Answer to Mr. Clark's Remarks on

Lepton sulcatulum. Ann. N. H. 3 ser. v. p. 131.
— — Synoptical List of the British Species of Teredo ; with a

notice of the Exotic Species. Ann. N. H. 3 ser. vi. p. 121.

Notice of an undescribed peculiarity in Teredo. Ann. N. H.

3 ser. vi. p. 289.

Lea, I. — Observations on the Genus Vnio, together with Descrip-
tions of new Species, their soft Parts and embryonic Forms in
the Family Unionidaa. Vol. vii. ( ) 1860.

— — Descriptions of Four new Species of Unionida?, from Brazil
and Buenos Ayres. Phil. Acad. Proc. 1860, p. 89.

Descriptions of Fifteen new Species of Uruguayan Unionida?.

Phil. Acad. Proc. 1860, p. 90.

Descriptions of Five new Species of Uniones, from North

Alabama. Phil. Acad. Proc, 1860, p. 92.

Descriptions of Two new Species of Uniones from Georgia.

Phil. Acad. Proc. 1860, p. 305.

Descriptions of Three new Species of Uniones, from Mexico.

Phil. Acad. Proc. 1860, p. 305.

Descriptions of Seven new Species of Unionida?, from the

United States. Phil. Acad. Proc. 1860, p. 306.

Descriptions of Six new Species of Unionida? from Alabama.

Phil. Acad. Proc. 1860, p. 307.

Descriptions of Three new Species of Exotic Unionidae.

Phil. Acad. Proc. 1860, p. 307.

Muller, Fritz. — Beschreibung einer Brachiopodenlarve. (plate.)
Arch. Anat. 1860, p. 72. Ann. N. H. 3 ser. vi. p. 310.

Prince, Temple. — Descriptions of new Species of Cyrena and Corbi-
cula, in the Cabinet of the Academy of Natural Sciences at Phi-
ladelphia. Phil. Acad. Proc. 1860, p. 80.

330 BIBLIOGRAPHY.

Komee (E.) Beschreibung neuer Venus- arten. Mai. B. iv. p. 148.
Voit, Cael. — Anhaltspunkte fiir die Physiologie der Perl-Muscheln.

Z. W. Z. x. 470.
Vrolik.— Rapport sur le Taret. A. S. N. xiii.

4. Molluscoida.

Aplix, C. D'Otlet, H. — Ereshwater Polyzoa, in Australia. A. N.

H. 3 ser. vi. p. 454.
Busk, Geo. — List of Marine Polyzoa, collected by George Barlee,

Esq., in Shetland and the Orkneys, with Descriptions of the new

Species. Hep. Brit. Assoc. 1859. Trans. Sect. p. 144.
- — Descriptions of new Species of Polyzoa, collected by George

Barlee, Esq., in Shetland. Q. J. Mic. Sc. (Zoophytology), viii.

p. 123, 143, 213.

Catalogue of the Polyzoa, collected by J. T. Johnson, Esq.

at Madeira, in the years 1859 and 1860. Q. J. Mic. Sc. (Zoophy-
tology), viii. p. 280.
Clapae^de, Ed.— Beitrage zur Eauna der Schottischen Kiiste. Z. w.
Z. xx. p. 401.

Contain : 1. On the Sexual propagation of Medusae by
Medusae.

2. On the " Haus" of Appendicularia. M. Claparede noticed
this structure universally in Appendicularia Cophocerca, taken
abundantly in Lamlash Bay. He describes it as resembling a
very transparent bivalve shell of an oval form. That it is not a
nidamental organ, as suggested by Albnan, is shown by its occur-
rence, in M.Claparede's experience, only in males.

3. " Die hutformige Larve." Amicroscopic creature, shaped like
a Erench officer's cap, the concavity and lower border are covered
with cilia. The lower border is toothed and marked with reddish
granules. Erom the middle of the concavity projects a bundle of
about 40 long setae, which the animal has the power of spreading
out or closing together. Each seta is bulbous at the free extre-
mity and beset with short spines. M. Claparede thinks it pro-
bable that the creature represents an Annelid Larva.

Hincks, Thos.— Descriptions of new Polyzoa, from Ireland. Q. J.

Mic Sc. (Zoophytology), viii. p. 275.
Houghton, W. — Note on JFredericella Sultana, being found in the

winter. Ann. Nat. Hist. 3 ser. vi. p. 389.
Huxley, T. H. — Observations on the Development of Pyrosoma.

Ami. N. H. 3 ser. ii. p. 29, (Abstract of Observations laid before

the Linnean Society, Dec. 1, 1859).
On the Anatomy and Development of Pyrosoma. Linn.

Trans, xxiii. p. 193.
Kepeestein, W., and Ehlers, E. — Anatomie und Entwickelung von

Doliolum. Wiegm. Arch. I. 1860. p. 334. (from Gott. Nachr.

1860— No. 23, 25-26.)
M'Gilliveay, P. H. — Notes on the Cheilostomatous Polyzoa of Vic-
toria and other parts of Australia, (plates). Vict. Trans. I860, p. 159.

CCELENTERATA. 331

Muller, Eritz. — Das Kolonialnervensystem der Moosthicre, nach-

gewiesen an Serialaria Coatinhii, n. sp. "Wiegm. Arch. I. 1860.

p. 311.
Murray, A. — Notice regarding the Branchial Sac of the simple

Ascidiae. E. S. E. Proc. 1860, p. 271.
On Darwin's Theory of the Origin of Species. E. S. E. Proc.

1860, p. 274.
Wallich, G-. C. — On the Siliceous Organisms found in the digestive

cavities of the Salpce, and their relation to the Elint Nodules of

the Chalk Formation. Transactions Mic. Soc. in Q. J. Mic. Sc.

viii. p. 36.

XXXIY. CcELENTERATA.

1. Actinozoa.

Daxielsen. — Om. — Virgularia elegans, n. sp.

„ „ Pennatula aculeata, n. sp. ?

„ „ Cerianthus borealis, n. sp.

„ „ Sipunculus pyriformis, n. sp.

Edwards, H. Milne. — Histoire naturelle des Coralliaires, ou polypes
proprement dits. Vol. iii. 8vo. Paris. Plain, 8s ; col. 10s 6d
A complete monograph of the Zoantharia, Bugosa and Alcyo-
naria. All the species and genera of these groups known to the
author are fully described. There is a general introduction on
the organization of the Polypes. These form the class Coralliaria,
divided into the sub-classes Cnidaria and Podactinaria. The
Cnidaria include two orders, Alcyonaria and Zoantharia. Of
Alcyonaria are distinguished three families, Alcyonidcd, Gorgo-
nidce, and Pennatulidce. In this order Prof. Milne Edwards
establishes a new genus, Haimeia, in honour of his recently
deceased colleague. The single species, IL.funebris, has a fur-
ther interest in being the only recorded example of a solitary
Alcyonarian. The Zoantharia are arranged under three sub-
orders : Malacodermata, Sclerobasica, and Sclerodermata. All
the Malacodermata are divided into two families, the Actiniadce,
with tentacles alternate, and the Cerianthiidce, having two rows
of opposite tentacula. This portion of the work is, perhaps, the
least perfect in its systematic details. Of Sclerobasica there is
but one family, Antipathidce. The numerous families of Sclero-
dermata fall under five principal sections : Aporosa, Perforata,
Tubulosa, Tabulata, and Rugosa. The sub-class Podactinaria is
equivalent to the family Lucernariadae of other authors.

A short chapter is added on the geographical distribution of
the Polypes.

There are, also, three fasciculi of Plates, representing some of
the forms described in the text.

332 BIBLIOGRAPHY.

Ehrenberg, C. — Beitrage zur Beurtheilung der wunderbaren japa-
nischen Grlaspfianze, der Sogenannten Corallenthier-Grattung
Hyalonema, und der Eamilie der Hyalochaetiden. Berl. Monats.
1860, p.

G-osse, P. H. — Actinologia Britannica : a History of the British Sea
Anemones and Corals.

The recent British Actinoida (==■ Zoantharia s. Heliantlwida)
are here minutely described, and illustrated by numerous coloured
figures. The author distinguishes seventy-five species, and adds
definitions of the principal varieties of each. All the species
receive English names. A tendency is shown to multiply un-
duly the number of genera and families. A detailed account is
given of the anatomy of the Actinia?, which contains some new
facts, especially with regard to their stinging apparatus. The
most valuable part of the work is that which treats systematically
of the non-adherent forms. Under the name of ■ conchula' a
curious organ is described, which appears to be a modification of
the oral extremity of the single gonidial groove in some of these
creatures.

A table is appended, showing the distribution of the species,
so far, at least, as at present known, around the different parts of
our coast.

Gray, J. E. — Eevision of the Eamily Pennatulidae, with Descriptions
of some new species in the British Museum. With figures.
A. N. H. 3 ser. v. p. 20. Jan. 1860.

Dr. Gray divides this family into five tribes: Fimiculineae
(Junciformes), Pennatiolece (Penniformes), Kopliobelemnoniece
(Claviformes), Veretillece (Yeretilloids), and Benillece. The
memoir of Herklats (Bidj. t. d. Dierkunde, part vij. 1858) is made
" the basis of this communication." Two plates are added, repre-
senting Sarcoptilus simosus, S. Gurneyi ; Sarcobelemnon Austral-
asia, and Renilla sinuata.

. . On the G-enus Hyalonema. A. N. H. 3 ser. v. p. 229.

Dr. Gray, following Brandt, regards Hyalonema as a Zoan-
tharian, and not, as he first supposed, a genus allied to Gorgonia.
He believes that the living Hyalonema finds its proper habitat
in a peculiar kind of Sponge, within the substance of which one
end of the coral is firmly embedded. He thinks also that the
two species of Hyalonema, and one of Hyalocliceta, described by
Brandt, may, possibly, be varieties of the same form.

Notice of some new Corals from Madeira, discovered by

J. Y. Johnson, Esq. Ann. N. H. 3 ser. vi. p. 311.

These Corals are : Corallium Johisonii, allied to O. rubrum ;
Antipatlies gracilis, a fan-like branching species, about six inches
high ; and A. setacea, which has a straight elongate corallum,
covered with numerous short conical spinules. Its length is 18
inches. A variety of this last (j3. occiden talis), which may prove
a distinct species, has also been received from Turk's Island,

CffiLENTERATA.

West Indies. This curious form has a slender whip-like corallium
more than nine feet in length.

Gteay, J. E. — Description of anew Species of Disticlwpora from New
Caledonia. Proc. Zool. Soc. 1860, p. 244.

A palmated Coral, which diifers from D. violacea in its bright
red tint, and the more compressed, broader, form of its stem and
branches ; their shelving edges giving the species " a rather
sword-like appearance." The much smaller cells, and narrower
lateral cell grooves also distinguish it.

Horn, Gr. IT. — Descriptions of new Corals in the Museum of the
Academy. Phil. Acad. Proc. 1860, p. 435.

Muller, Fritz. — On Philomeditsa Vogtii, a parasite on Medusae.
A. N. H. 3 ser. vi. p. 432. (From W. Arch. 1860, p. 57.)

This is a free Zoantharian allied, we think, to Peacliia of
Grosse. It was first found " adhering singly to the lower surface
of the disc in Olindias (nov. gen. JSucopidarum) , and afterwards
in plenty upon Ckrysaora, in which it dwells on the arms, in the
sexual cavities, and in the stomach and its sacs." None of the
specimens contained ova or spermatozoa. Rows of minute orifices,
leading into the grand cavity, were distinctly seen to radiate
from the hinder end of the body.

Yalexciennes, A. — Observations sur les especes de Madrepores en
corymbes. Compt. rend. Tom. 1. pp. 1008-9. Ann. N. H. 3 ser.
vi. p. 79. (Figures.)

M. Valenciennes here reviews some of the species of Madre-
2?ora. The American forms of this genus, though sufficiently
distinct, he considers analogous with those found under corres-
ponding latitudes in the Eastern hemisphere.

2. Hydrosoa.

Alder, Joshua. — Description of a Zoophyte and two species of
Echinodermata, new to Britain. (With Figs.). Ann. N. H.
3 ser. v. p. 73.

The Zoophyte here described is Campanularia fastigiata, a
minute parasitic species allied to C. syringa, from which it chiefly
differs in the curious form of the lid closing the orifice of its
hydrotheca, or polype-cell. This, " when closed, slopes down on
each side like the roof of a house, the two opposite angles form-
ing the gables. When the operculum is fully open, the folds
disappear, and the edges unite into a continuous rim round the
top of the cell."

Allmajst, G-eo. — On the Structure of CardueUa cyathiformis. A
contribution to our knowledge of the Lucernariadse. Q. J. Mic.
Soc. viii. p. 125.

The structure of this species (== Lucernaria cyathiformis) is
detailed, and compared with that of a gymnophthalmatous Me-
dusid. The author does not fully estimate the closer affinity of
the Lucemariadce to the SteganophtJialmata.

334 BIBLIOGRAPHY.

Allman, Geo. — Note on the Structure and Terminology of the
Reproductive System in the Corynidce and Sertulariadce. Ann.
N. H. 3 ser. vi. p. 1.

A re- statement of the views contained in the author's pre-
vious papers on the same subject, and a reply to certain objections
urged against part of his terminology by Prof. Huxley.

Note on Carduella cyatliifornxis. Ann. N. H. 3 ser. vi.

p. 40.

Prof. Allman distinguishes three genera of Lucernariadce : —
Lucernaria, Muller ; Carduella, Allman (= Calicinaria, Milne
Edwards) ; and Depastrum, Gosse.

On Dicoryne stricta, a new Genus and Species of the Tu-

bulariada?. Eep. Brit. Ass. 1859. Trans. Sect. p. 142.

This form resembles Hydr actinia in habit, and in the struc-
ture of its proliferous stalks, or gonoblastidia, around the bases
of which are clustered the reproductive buds. But one specimen,
a male, was dredged at Orkney, from a depth of about three
fathoms.

On Laomedea tenuis, n. sp. Eep. Brit. Ass. 1858. (Trans.

Sect. p. 143.)

A delicate species akin to L. lacerata, from which it differs in
having branches equal to the main stem in thickness, and in the
form of its reproductive capsules, which give rise to free medusi-
form gonophores.

On the Structure of the Lucernariada?. Eep. Brit. Ass. 1859.

Trans. Sect. p. 143.

Boeck, Chr. — Beskrivelse over en Tubularie fra Belsund paa Spitz-
hergeii—Tubularia regalis. Forh. Vid. Selsk. (Aar. 1859) 1860,
p. 114.

Clatjs, C. — Ueber PJiysopliora hydrostatica nebst Bemerkungen
iiber andere Siphonophoren. Z. w. Z. x. p. 295.

The structure of the swimming organs (nectocalyces), with
their curiously convoluted canals, and of the tentacular appa-
ratus, receives the author's special attention.

Gegenbatjr, K. — Neue Beitrage zur naheren Kenntniss der Sipho-
nophoren. 7 plates. 4to. Jena, 1860.

Gosse, P. H. — On the Lucernaria cyathiformis of Sars. Ann.
N. H. 3 ser. v. p. 480.

Mr. Gosse makes of this form a new genus, Depastrum, which
he considers identical Avith Carduella of Allman, and claims,
therefore, priority for his own term. But see Allman, above.

Greene, J. Beat. — On Sertularia tricuspidata. Ann. N. Hist.
3 ser. v. p. 431.

This name, given by Mr. A. Murray to a Californian Sertula-
rian, had previously been applied by Mr. Alder to a British
form of that genus. Mr. Murray has since corrected his misno-
mer, and called his new species " S. Greenei" (See Murray).

JaGER. — Ueber das spontane Zerfallen der Siisswasserpolypen nebst

PROTOZOA, 335

einigen Bemerkungen iiber Generationswechsel. Plate. Vien.
Bitz; 60.

Three specimens of Hydra were isolated in small vessels. One
of these, which did not produce buds, died. The two others, fur-
nished with buds, spontaneously broke up into fragments which,
after the expiration of a month, were observed to move like
Amoebae, and even multiply by self- division, while some passed
into a state resembling the encysted condition of certain Infusoria.
Thus, it is conjectured, they may remain throughout the winter,
and, in spring time, become changed into perfect Hydra?.

Houghton, W. — On the Hydra rubra of Mr. Lewes.

Iveferstein, W., and Ehlers, W. — Auszug aus den Beobachtungen
iiber die Siphonophoren von Neapel und Messina, angestellt im
Winter 1859-60. Wiegin. Arch. I. 1860. p. 324. (from Gott,
Nachr. 1860. No. 23-25-26.

Lewes, G. H. — On a new British Species of Hydra. Ann. Nat.
Hist. 3 ser. v. p. 71.

Hydra rubra only differs from H. vulgaris in its colour,
which, according to Mr. Lewes, it retains in captivity for weeks,
and transmits to its numerous free buds.

Murray, And. — Description of new Sertulariadae from the Califor-
nian coast. ("With Tigs.) Ann. N. H. 3 ser. v. p. 250.

The three species of Sertularia, and two of Flumularia, de-
scribed in this paper, were taken in the Bay of San Francisco.
With one exception, they closely approach some British forms of
the same genera.

On Sertularia tricuspidata (Greenei). Ann. Nat. H. 3 ser.

v. p. 504.

Price, John. — On the Genus Cydippe. Rep. Brit. Ass. 1839.
Trans. Lect. p. 155.

Mr. Price tells us that he has kept the delicate Cydippe pileus
in captivity for thirteen months. The fact is note- worthy, and
should be taken advantage of by those who wish to study the
structure of these animals.

Van Beneden. — On the Strobilation of the Scyphistomata. Ann.
N. H. 3 ser. v. p. 504. From Bull. Ac. Boy. Belg. 2me ser. vii.

A confirmation of Sar's well known observations, with which,
hitherto, Yan Beneden had not been disposed wholly to agree.

Sars. — Udtog af en Anhandlmg om Ainmeshegten Corymorplia og dens
Arter Samt de af disse opammende Meduser. Forhand. Vedensk.
Selskabet, Aar. 1859, (1860), p. 95. -

XXXV.— Protozoa.

Claparede, E. et J. Lachmann. — Etudes sur les Infusoires et les
Bhizopodes. (Tome ler en 3 livraisons.) Tom. I. Parts 1, 2.
24 plates. 4to. Geneva, 1860.

VOL. I. — N. H. R. 2 X

336 EIELIOGEAPIIY.

Engelmakn-, F. W. — Ueber Fortpflanzung von Epistylis crassicollis,
CarcTiesium polypinum, Sfc. Plate. Zeitschr. w. Z. x. 2.

Lecoq, H. — Observations snr une grand espece de Spongille du Lac
Pavin (Puy deDome). Compt. rend., Tom. 1. pp. 1116-21 and
No. 26, June 25, pp. 1165-70.

These observations relate chiefly to the colour, spicules, and
sarcode substance of what is believed to be a new species of fresh-
water sponge. Little is said of the reproductive bodies.

Lemaiee, N. — Sur le role des Infusoires et des matieres albumineuses
dans la fermentation, la germination, et la fecondation. Comp. rend.
LI. p. 536, 627.

" I think, (says M. Lemaire), that the Infusoria so abun-
dantly diffused in nature, and which have been proved to occup in
the seminal fluid of almost all known animals, and in the male organs
of nearly every plant, constitute the primum movens of the pheno-
mena of fermentation, of germination, and of fecundation, but
that, for their action to manifest itself, contact (reunion) with
albuminoid matters seems indispensable."

Paekee, "W. K., and Jokes, T. E.— On the Nomenclature of the
Foraminifera. Ann. N. H. 3 ser. v. p. 98-174, 285-466, vi. p.
29, 337.

A continuation of a series of papers in previous departments
of the same subject. The species mentioned by Fichtel and Moll,
Lamarck and Denis de Montfort, are here reviewed.

Peitciiaed, A. — History of Infusoria, including Desmidiacese and
Diatomacea?, British and foreign, 4th ed. enlarged and revised by
J. T. Arlidge, "W. Archer, J. Balfs, W. C. "Williamson and the
author. 40 plates. 8vo. 1860. coloured, 50s ; plain, 36s.

A notice of this work appeared in the last number of the
Natural History Beview, p. 121.

Eetzius, A. — Ueber Trompetenthierchen als Eohrenbewohner. L.
Nat. 1860.

Schttltze, Max. — Die Grattung Comaspira mitev d.Monothalamien,u.
Bemerkungen iiber d. Organisation u. Fortpflanzung d. Polythala-
mien. "Wiegm. Arch. 1860. I. pp. 3-287.

Sur une nouvelle espece d'eponge (Hyalonema) prise pour

une polype. Compt. rend., Tom. L. pp. 792-3.

M. Max Schultze differs from M. Brandt and Dr. Gray as to
the nature of Hyalonema, which he regards as a true sponge, not
a polype parasitic on sponges.

Stein (P.) der Organismus der Infusionsthiere nach eigenen Por-
schungen in systematischer Eeihenfolge bearb. Vol. I. Allgemeiner
Theil u. Naturgeschichte der hypotrichen Infusionsthiere. 14 plates.
Polio. Leipz.

VALEisrciEisnsrEs, A. — Note sur les Spongiaires envoy es des cotes de
l'Attique, par M. Albert Graudry. Comp. rend. LI. p. 579.

The name Adytkia is proposed for a genus of Sponges, cha-
racterized by the ready solubility of their entire substance in

PHYSIOLOGY, ETC. 337

weak alkaline ley, and by the absence of a reticulated struct arc.
One species of Adytliia lias been obtained from Attica, another
from the Morea, and a third from the Bed Sea.

XXXVI. — Physiology and Huma^ Anatomy — including
Histology.

1. General and Mixed.

Adeian, A. — Uebcr Diffusions-geschwindigkeit und Diffusions aBqui-
valente bei getrockneten Membranen. Eckhard's Beitrag. Z. An.
u. Phys. ii. p. 186.

Beale, Lionel S. — Some points in support of our belief in the per-
manence of Species, and on the very limited application of the
doctrine of their Origin by Natural Selection. Phil. Journ. xii.
p. 233.

Bischoee. — Ueber eine Arbeit von Voit : Die thierischen Kraftaus-
serungen in ihrern Zusaminenhange mit dem Stoffwechsel. Mun.
Sitz. 1860, II.

Bois-Beymond, Emil. du. — Untersuchungen iiber thierische Elek-
tricitat. Vol. ii. part 2, Svo. plate. Berlin.

Boudin, M.— On the Non- Cosmopolitanism of the Human Eaces.
Jour. Physiol. 1860, p. 363.

Beee, C. E. — Species not transmutable, nor the result of secondary
causes. Svo.

Beieee de Boismont. — Becherches sur l'unite du genre humain, au
point de vue de l'education et des croisements pour l'amelioration
des races. 8vo. Paris.

Beoca, P. — Etudes sur les animaux ressuscitants. Eapport lu a. la
Societe de biologic Plates. Svo. Paris.

On Hybrid Phenomena in the Human Eace. (Conclusion).

Jour. Physiol. 1860, p. 392-439.

Budge, J. — Lehrhuch cler speciellen Physiologie d. Menschen. 8.
ganzlich umgearb. Aufl. Part i. 5 plates. Eoyal Svo. Weim.
1860.

Cuauveau, A. — Theorie des Effets physiologiques produits par l'elec-
tricite transmise dans 1'organisme animal, a l'etat de courant in-
stantane et a l'etat de courant continue. Arch. d. Sc. Phys. et
Nat. ix. p. 410. Journ. d. Physiol. 1860, pp. 52, 274, 300, 45S,
472.

Collin gwood, Cuthbeet. — On Homomorphism. Liverpool Lit. and
Phil. Soc. Proc. No. xv. 180, 216.

On Eecurrent Animal Eorm, and its Significance in Syste-
matic Zoology. Ann. N. H. 3 ser. vi. p. 81.

Ceisp, Dr. E. — On the Causes of Death of the Animals in the
Society's Gardens, from 1851 to 1860. Proc. Zool. Soc. 1860, p.
175, 190.

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PHYSIOLOGY, ETC. 339

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Eouget, Charles. — Notes on several questions of Anatomy and
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2. Nervous System and Organs of Sense.

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Bois-Eeymokd, E. du. — Anmerkung an dem Aufsatz von J. Budge

" Ueber den Stillstand des Herzen durch Vagusreizung." Arch.

Anat. 1860, p. 261.
Abanderung des Stenonschen Yersuches fur Yorlesungen.

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Schliessungs-induktions Schlage. Arch. Anat. 1860, p. 857.
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the body, under the influence of irritation of the encephalon, or
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PHYSIOLOGY, ETC. 341

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3. Respiratory and Circulatory Organs.

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A long series of investigations upon the nutritive, circulatory,

PHYSIOLOGY, ETC. 343

and respiratory processes of hybernating marmots, published in
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Bestatigung der dem Pankreas eigenthumlichen Kraftigen

Wirksamkeit bei der verdauung der stichstoffhaltigen Nahrung-
stoffe durch Versuche mit nattirlichem Bauchspeichel. Moles-
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Harley, George. — On the Saccharine Function of the Liver. Proc.
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Has s all, Arthur Hill. — On the frequent occurrence of Phosphate
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His, Prof.— Beitrage zur Kenntniss der zum Lymphsystem gehor-
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This paper treats of the cellular and connective- tissue net-
work in the lymphatic glands, the Thymus, the Peyerian and soli-
tary glands of the intestine, the Tonsils, Sebaceous follicles, and
Malpighian corpuscles.

In all these organs, as has been long known, the essential
glandular parenchyma is constituted in a similar manner. It is
subdivided by connective- tissue dissepiments into more or less
numerous portions, which are sometimes only imperfectly sepa-
rated. The walls of these alveoli, acini, or follicles, support the
larger arterial and venous vessels, which send off fine capillary

VOL. I. — N. H. R. 2 Y

344 BIBLIOGRAPHY.

branches into the interior of the spaces, and which by their anas-
tomoses constitute a rather loose plexus, in the midst of which in
some cases a central space is left. Among these capillaries and
in connection with them, and with the connective tissue of the
septa, is found an extremely close, but at the same time very
delicate network composed, if not exclusively, yet for the most
part of anastomosing cells ; and in the meshes of this plexus the
well known forms of Lymph- corpuscles are lodged.

This fine network, was supposed by Eckhard to represent a
system of serous canals communicating directly with the blood
vessels. But Heidenhain, was unable to trace any communication
of the kind by means of injection, and Prof. His, has fully satisfied
himself, after numerous observations, that no such connexion
really exists.

A minute account of the structure of the Thymus gland is
given, and the results of the author's and of Friedleben's observa-
tions respecting its functions are stated. Prof. His considers
that lymph- corpuscles are continually formed by the division of
the cell-like bodies contained in the capsules of the acini, and that
these corpuscles gradually find their way into the central canal, and
are conveyed by special canals into the lymphatics, and ultimately
into the blood where they are converted into red corpuscles.

Ordenstein, L. — Ueber den Parotidspeichel des Menschen. Eck-
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Pappenheim, M. — Etude des vaisseaux lymphatiques. Compt. rend.
L. p. 70.

Pavt, Frederick W. — On the alleged sugar-forming function of the
Liver. Proc. Eoy. Soc. x. p. 528, 531. (Abstract).

Turner, Wm. — On the employment of transparent injections in the
examinations of the minute structure of the Human Pancreas.
Q. J. M. S. p. viii. p. 147.

Upon the Thyroid Grland in the Cetacea, with observations

on the relation of Thymus to the Thyroid in these and certain
other Mammals. E. S. E. Trans, xxii. 2. p. 319.

5. Generation and Reproduction.

Adamson", Johist. — Case of Lactation in an Unimpregnated Bitch.

Eep. Brit. Ass. 1859. Trans. Sect. p. 159.
Barthelemt, A. — Etudes et considerations generales sur la Parthe-

nogenese. Ann. Sc. Nat. xii. p. 308.

The author has observed that some of the ova laid by the virgin

JBombyx Mori, in the early part of the year are fertile — but not

in the autumn. He has also noticed three fertile ova among

those deposited by a virgin Ghelonia Caja.
Bilharz, Alfons. — Beschreibung der Grenitalorgane einiger schwar-

zen Eunuchen, nebst Bemerkungen uber die Beschneidung der

clitoris und kleinen Schamlippen. Z. W. Z. x. p. 281. (c. fig.)

PHYSIOLOGY, ETC. 345

Coste. — Histoire generate et particuliere du developpement des corps

organises. Tome ii. 4e fasc. 12 plates. 4to. Paris.
Eheenbebg. — Ueber eine secundare rothe Earbung des thierischen

Eettes. Berl. Mon. 1859.
Pick, A. — Compendium der Physiologic d. Menschen mit Einschluss

der Entwickeliingsgeschichte. Engravings. 8vo. Yien. 1860.
Filippi, E. i>e — Zur Kenntniss d. Botterkorperchen d. Eische. 23 fig.

Zeitschr. W. Z. x. i.
Koellie^r, A. — Entwickelungsgeschichte des Menschen u. d. hoheren

Thiere. Part 1. 94 woodcuts (to be completed in 2 parts). 8vo.

Leipz.
Ogilyie, Gr. — On the Grenetic Cycle in Organic Nature. Rep. Brit.

Ass. 1859. Trans. Sect. p. 172.

Since published under the title of : " The Grenetic Cycle in

Organic Nature ; or the succession of forms in the propagation of

Plants and Animals." 8vo. Aberdeen, Edinb. and London, 1861.
Reichebt. — Beitrage zur Entwickelungsgeschichte des Meerschwein-

chens. Berl. Mon. 1860.
Seebes, E. — Principes d'Embryogenie, de Zoogenie et de Teratogenic.

25 plates. 4to. Paris.
Deuxieme Note sur le developpement des premieres rudi-

mens de 1' embryo. Absence des rudiments de la corde dorsale dans

le premier jour de la formation. Viduite primitive de la ligne

secondaire. C. E. LI. p. 337, 476.
The author concludes :

1. That the chorda dorsalis does not exist in the first and half
of the second days of the formation of the embryo of birds.

2. That the " secondary line" which has been personified under
that name, represents a free interval lying between the internal
borders of the primitive folds ; the line being inflected with the
folds in the formation of the cephalic hood.

3. That this secondary line, or the interval of the primitive
folds, should not be regarded as the rudiment of any body what-
ever, since light traverses it readily when viewed under the
Microscope.

4. It follows, therefore, that if the chorda dorsalis does not
exist in the first day of the formation of the embryo, it is not, nor
can he, the axis around which the primitive parts of the foetus are
subsequently formed.

Troisieme Note sur le developpement des premieres rudimens

de l'embryon. Formation primitive de l'axe cerebro-spmal du
systeme nerveux. Comp. rend. LI. p. 581.

6. Organs of Motion and Support.

Bones, Muscles, Cartilage, Sfc.

Aeby, Ch. — Ueber die Eortpflanzungsgeschwindigkeit der Muskel-
zuckung. Vorlaufige Mittheilung. Arch. Anat. 1860, p. 25.

346 BIBLIOGRAPHY.

Beclard, J. — De la chaleur produite pendant le travail de la contrac-
tion musculaire. Compt. rend. L. p. 471.

Broadhurst, Bernard E. — On the repair of tendons after their sub-
cutaneous division. (Abstract.) Proc. Eoy. Soc. x. 196, 197.

Broadgeest, P. J. — Onderzoekingen over den tonus der willekeurige
spieren. (Academisch proefschrift enz.). 8vo. Utrecht, 1860.
(Translated in abstract). Arch. Anat. 1860, p. 703.

Eaivre, E. — Eecherches sur les modifications qu'eprouvent apres la
mort chez les Grenouilles les proprietes des nerfs et des muscles.
Comp. rend. L. p. 672.

Poster, Michael. — On the effects produced by freezing on the phy-
siological Properties of Muscles. Proc. Eoy. Soc. x. 523, 528.

GtUBler, Dr. — Ueber die Langenverhaltnisse der skelettmuskelfasern.
Moleschott's Untersuchungen, vii. 3.

KtrEHisrE, W. — Ueber des Porretische Phanomen am Muskel. Arch.
Anat. 1860, p. 542.

Myologische Untersuchungen. Plate. Eoy. Svo. Leipzig,

1860.

Lieberkttehn, N. — Ueber d. Ossification. 2 plates. Arch. Anat.
1860, p. 824.

Mattetjci, C. — Muscular Contraction. On the electrical Phenomena
which accompany it. Proc. Eoy. Soc. x. 344, 347.

Ollier, M. — Note sur la realite des regenerations osseuses apres les
resections sousperiostees et sur des transplantations d'os pris sur
des animaux morts depuis un certain laps de temps. Compt. rend.
L. p. 161.

Eotjget, Charles. — The Skeleton of Vertebrates considered in refer-
ence to the morphology of the Organs of locomotion. Jour. Physiol.
1860, 134, 151.

Schelske. — Ueber die Chemischen Muskelreize. Arch. Anat. 1860,
p. 263. (From Heidelb. Verhand.)

VoLKMAiSTsr, A. "W. — Erwiederung auf die im Schlusshefte des Mul-
lerscher Archivs gegen mich gerichtete Abhandlung E. Webers
iiber Muskelreizbarkeit. Arch. An. 1860, p. 145.

Controle d. Ermudungseinflusse in Muskelversuchen. Arch.

Anat. 1860, p. 705.

"Wilkens, M. — Zur chemischen Constitution der Knorpelgewebes.
Z. W. Z. x. p. 467.

7. Works on Histology, Human Anatomy, Sfc.

Bell, C. — The Hand : its Mechanism and Vital Endowments as
evincing Design. Sixth Edition, revised ; preceded by an Account
of the Author's Discoveries in the Nervous System. By Alex.
Shaw. 8vo. London, 1860.

Chapiijs, P. — Eecherches sur la Structure de poils et des follicules
pileux. An. S. n. Zool. xiii. p. 363.

PHYSIOLOGY, ETC. 347

Chapius and Jac. Moleschott.— Ueber einige Punkte betreftend

den Bau des Haarbalgs und der Haare der mensehlichen Kopf-

liant. Moleschott's Untersuchungen, vii. 4.
Ellis, George Vdsbb. — Eesearches into the Nature of the Involuntary

Muscular Tissue of tlie Urinary Bladder. Phil. Trans. 1860,

p. 469-477. AVith two plates.
Gr ruber, W. — Die supernumeraren Brustniuskeln d. Menschen.

2 plates, 4to. Petersb. Mem. III.
Note preliniinaire siir les hursae mucosae scapulares supra-

coracoideae. Petersb. Bui. I.
Monograph, d. Canalis supracondyJoideus humeri. (Plates).

Peters. Mem. VIII.

d. Musculi subscapularis. 4 plates. Peters. Mem. VIII.

Sur l'os acromial et sur 1' articulation acromiale accidentclle

de l'homme. Petersb. Bui. I.
Hapless, E. — Untersuchungen an der Muskelsubstanz. Miin. Sitz.

1860, p. 93.
Hawkins, W.— A Comparative View of the Human and Animal

Frame. 10 Lithographs. Pol. London.
Hesslixg, Theod. v., Kollmants", Julius ; and Albert, Jos. — Atlas

der allgemeinen Thierischen Grewebelehre, nach der Natur photo-

graphirt. 1. Lief. 8vo. Leipzig, I860. (Published in Dec. 1S60.)

(11 plates.)
Hoyer, H. — Ueber d. angebliche Nervenfaser-Endplexus im Stratum

nerveum d. Darmschleimhaut. Arch. Anat. 1860, p. 543.
■ Ueber d. mikroskopischen Verhaltnisse d. Nasenschleimhaut

verschiedener Thiere u. d. Menschen. Plate. Arch. Anat. 1S60,

p. 50.
Hyrtl, J. — Handbuch der praktischen Zergliederungskunst als An-

leitung zu den Sectionsiibungen u. zur Ausarbeitung anatomischer

Pr'aparate. 8vo. Wien, 1860.
Koelliker, A. — Ueber d. ausgebreitete Vorkommen von pflanzlichen

Parasiten in d. Hartgebilden niederer Thiere. 2 plates. Zeitschr.

w. Z. x. 2, (Transl. Q. J. Mic. Sc. viii. p. 171.)
1 Ueber die grosse Verbreitung der " perforating fibres" von

Sharpey. AYurz. N. Z. I. p. 306.
Krause, W. — Anatomische Untersuchungen. 2 plates. 8vo. Han-
over, 1861.
Luschka, H.— Der Brusttheil d. unteren Hohlader d. Menschen.

Plate. Arch. Anat. 1860, p. 624.
Margo. — Ueber die Muskelfasern der ^Mollusken. Em Beitrag zur

vergleichenden Structur- und Entwickelungs-Lehre des Muskel-

gewebes. 2 plates. Yien. Sitz. 1860.
Mayer.— Das Neben-Thranenbein. Arch. Anat, 1860, p. 264.
Mette^heimer, C. — Ueber eine optische Erscheinimg an dem Seh-

nengewebe. (Plate). Arch. Anat. 1860, p. 354.
Morel, C. — Precis d'Histologiehumaine. 28 planches. 8vo. Strasb.
MiiLLER, H. — Bewegungserscheiuungen an ramiiicirten Pigmentzellen

der Epidermis. Wurz. N. Z. i. p. 164.

348 'bibliography.

Muller, H. — Ueber Sharpey's durchbohrende Pasern iin Knochen.

Wurz. N. i. p. 164.
Owsjannikow, P. — Ueber d. feinere Struktur der lobi olfactorii d.

Saugethiere. Arch. Anat. 1860, p. 469.

XXXYII. Paleontology.

Abich, H.— Beitrage zur Palseontologie des Asiatischen Eusslands.

Petersb. Mem. 6me. ser. ix. p. 535.
Vergleichende Geologie des Kaukasus, sowie d. Armenischen

u. Nord-Persischen Gebirge. 8 plates. 4to. Petersb. Mem. vii.
Abich, H. — Ueber Steinsalz u. seine geologiscbe Stellung im russiscb

Armenien. 11 plates of fossils. Petersb. Mem. vii.
Allport, S. — On some Possils from Bahia, South America; with

Notes on the Pishes, by Sir P. Egerton ; on the Mollusca, by Prof.

J. Morris ; and on the Cypridse, by T. Eupert Jones. Geol.

Jour, xvi. p. 263. (4 plates. 8vo.)
Anca, Prancois. — Sur la decouverte en Sicile de deux nouvelles

grottes a ossemens fossiles (fig.) Soc. Greol. Bull. xvii. p. 680.
. Notice of the Discovery of two Bone Caves in Northern Sicily.

Greol. Journ. xvi. p. 459.
Anderson, J. — On the Yellow Sandstone of Dura Den, and its

Possil Pishes. (Abstract.) Greol. Journ. xvi. p. 136.
Ansted, D. T. — Geology of Malaga, with Appendix containing Notes

on the Possil Poraminifera, by Messrs. T. E. Jones and W. K.

Parker ; on the Possil Mammalia, by Dr. H. Palconer ; and on

the Mollusca, by MM. De Verneuil and Deshayes. Greol. Journ.

p. 60.
Austin, T. — Possil Human Bones at "Waterford Haven. Geol. iii.

p. 71.
Protcechinics anceps, from Hook Point and Palcechinus (fig.)

Greol. iii. p. 446.
Bailey, W. H. — Description of anew Pentacrinite from the Kim-

meridge Clay of Weymouth, Dorsetshire. (Pig-) Ann. N. H.

3 ser. vi. p. 25.
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Dorchester. (Pig.) Ann. N. H. 3 ser. vi. p. 28.
■ — Corynepteris, a new Possil Pern and other fossil plants from

Limerick. Dub. Geol. Soc. J. viii. p. 237.
Barranbe, J. — Ueber d. regelmassige periodische Abstossung d.

Schaale bei palaolith. Cephalopoden. Plate. L. and B. Jahr.

1860.
— - — Depot Organique dans les loges aeriennes des Orthoceres.
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tains Cephalopodes paleozoiques. (Pig-) Soc. Geol. Bull. xvii.

p. 573.

PALEONTOLOGY. 349

Beaudouin, J. — Sur des Silex tailles trouves aux Environs de Clia-

tillon-sur- Seine. Soc. G-eol. Bull. xvii. p. 488
Beegee, H. A. C. — Die Yersteinerungen des Schaumkalks am Tkurin-

gen-Wald. 1860.
Beyeich. — Ueber Semnopithecus pentelicus. Berl. Mon. 1860. (6.)
Billings, E. — New Lower Silurian Eislies from Canada. Canad.

Nat. and G-eol. v. 3.
— On the Devonian Eossils of Canada "West. Cam. Journ.

1860, p 229.

New Species of Eossils from the Limestone, near Quebec.

Canad. Nat. and G-eol. v. 3.
Binkhoest. — Sur la Craie de Maestricht et sur les fossiles de cette

localite. Soc. G-eol. Bull. xvii. p. 61.
Blnney, E. W. — Observations on the Eossil Shells of the Lower Coal

Measures. (1860).
Blanchet, R. — Goniobates Agassizii. Yaud. Bull. vi. p. 472.
Bland, T. — Remarks on certain species of North American Helicida?.

(1860).
Boenemann, J. Gr. — Ueber einige Eoraminiferen aus den Tertiarbil-

dungen der Umgegend von Magdeburg. (Eig.) D. G-. Z. xii. p.

156.
Bosquet, J. — Recherches paleontologiques sur le terrain tertiaire du

Lhnbourg Neerlandais. Amst. Yerh. vii.
Bouchee de Peethes. — Sur les silex tailles des bancs diluviens de

la Soinme. C. rend. xlix.
Bouve, T. T. and C. S. HKLE.—Zenglodon cetoides. Boston S. N.

H. Pr. vi.
Eossil Eootmarks of the Connecticut Yalley. Boston S. N.

H. Pr. vii.
Beadlet, E. H.— New Trilobites from the Potsdam Sandstone. Sill.

Am. Jrn. 89
Beady, A. — Elephant Remains at Hford. Phil. Journ. xi. p. 136.
Beandt, J. E. — Proposition concernant des recherches paleontologi-
ques dans la Russie meridionale. Petersb. Mem. i.
Sur une Squelette de Mastodon trouve pres de Nikolaief.

Petersb. Bull. ii. p. 193.
Beandt, J. S. and Helmeesen, G-. v. — Yorschlag zur Anstellung

palseontologische Nachgrabungen im Sudlichen Russland. 1860.
Beavaed, A. — Catalogue des especes d'Animaux fossils recueilles

dans l'Amerique du Sud. 8vo. Paris, 1860.
Beodie, P. B.- — On the occurrence of Eootsteps of Clieir other ium in

the Upper Keuper in Warwickshire. Geol. Journ. xvi. p. 278.
Buckman, J. — On some Eossil Reptilian Eggs in the Great Oolite,

near Cirencester. (2 woodcuts.) Geol. Soc. xvi. p. 107.
Busk, G-. — Note on the Eossil Polyzoa, collected by the Rev. J. E.

Wood, near Mount Gambier, South Australia. Geol. Journ. xvi.

p. 360.
Buteux. — Sur les silex travailles trouves dans le diluvium pres d' Ab-
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350 BiBLioGEAPnr.

Capellent, De. and Pagenstechee. — Mikroskopische Untersuchun-
gen uber den innern Ban einiger fossilen Schwamme. Z. W. Z. x.
p. 364. (c. fig.)#

In the Meinoires de la Societe d'Emnlation du Departement
du Doubs, 1859, Prof. Etallon describes among the numerous
fossil sponges of the " Scyphia-kalk," near St. Claude, in the
Departement du Jura, a peculiar family named by him the
" Diktyonocoelidise." The species in question are said to be dis-
tinguished from all other fossil and recent forms, by a quite pecu-
liar internal structure. This structure is the more interesting
that it bears a close resemblance to that of the Ventriculites of the
chalk, as described by Mr. Toulmin Smith. The structure alluded
to, consists in the existence in the substance of the fossil sponge
of anastomosing tubes or canals, which may be straight and toler-
ably regularly disposed, or tortuous and irregular. These canals
are found partially or completely filled with calc-spar or oxide of
iron. The authors, however, are disposed to believe, and show
very good reasons for their belief, that these canals in the fossil
were not really such in the living sponge, but rather that they re-
present an original horny skeleton, and consequently that the
Diktyonocoelidiae of Prof. Etallon do not differ intrinsically from
the horny sponges. And they apply the same arguments in oppo-
sition to Mr. Toulmin Smith's notion that the Ventriculites belong
to a class of animals more highly organized than the sponges.

Chapman, E. J. — On a new species of Agelacrinites, and on the
Structure and natural relations of that Genus. Canad. Journ.
1860, July. Am. N. H. 3 ser. vi. 157.

Conead, T. A. and Gabb, ~W. M. — Carboniferous and Triassic Mol-
lusca. Proc. Phil. Acad. Sci. 1860, p. 55.

Chazeeeatj. — Sur les haches en silex trouvees dans le departement
du Loiret. C. rend. xlix.

Chop, K. — Mittheilungen uber d. Sondershauser Muschelkalk. Z.
Nat. 1860. (7-8.)

Collomb, Ed. — Sur l'existence cle l'homme sur la terre anterieure-
ment a 1' apparition des anciens glaciers. Arch. Sc. Phys. et Nat.
July, 1860, p. 200.

Costa, O. Gr. — Descrizione di alcuni pesci fossili del Libano. 2 plates ;
Sui Eorammiferi fossili delle marne blu del Vaticano, e delle
terziarie di Messina. Genere, Frondicularia. Plate. Napol.
Mem. ii.

Luspia Cosotti nuovo genere di pesci fossili della Calcarea

Tenera Leccese. Plate. Polio. Napoli.

Paleontologia del regno di Napoli. Parte III. Ease. 3.

2 plates. 4to. Napoli.
Cotteait, Gr. — Sur le genre Heterocichris. (fig.) Soc. Geol. Bull.

xvii. p. 378.
Damon, E. — Handbook to the Geology of "Weymouth and the Island

of Portland j with Notes on the Natural History of the Coast and

PALEONTOLOGY. 351

Neighbourhood ; Map, Geological Sections, Plates of Fossils.

12ino. Loudon, 1860.
Davidson, T.— Carboniferous Brachiopocla of Scotland. Geol. iii.

14 and 99. (2 pis.)
Dawson, J. W.— On a Terrestrial Mollusk, a Chilognathous Myria-

pod, and some new species of Eeptiles, from the Coal Formation

of Nova Scotia. (Figures.) Geol. Journ. xvi. p. 268.

■ Fossil Fern, from Nova Scotia. Phil. Mag. xx. p. 485.

— Tertiary Fossils from Labrador, Maine, &c. Canad. Nat. and

Geol. v. 3.

Fossils from the Coal of Nova Scotia. Canad. Nat. and

Geol. v. 3.

Deshayes, G. P. — Description des animaux sans vertebres, decou-
verts dans le bassin de Paris. Liv. 19 et 20. 4to. Paris, 1860.

Deslonochamps, E.— Sur les Plicatules fossiles des Terrains du Cal-
vados. 14 plates. Brux. Ac. Berl. vii.

■ Sur les Brachiopodes du Kelloway-Eock ou Zone ferrugineuse

du Terrain Callovien dans le Nord-Ouest de la France. 6 plates.
Brux. Ac. Bull. vii.

Desnoyees, J. — Sur les Empreintes de pas d'animaux dans la Gypse
des Environs de Paris et particulierement de la Vallee de Mont-
morency. 8vo. Paris, 1860. (C. rend, xlix.)

Duckworth, H. — Arte-facta Antiquissima : Geology in its relation
to primeval Man. 8vo. London, 1860.

Delahaepe,Ph. — Corne de Benne du Diluvium. Vaud.Bull.vi. p. 460.

Delbos, J. — Becherches sur les Ossemens des Carnassiers des Ca-
vernes de Senthehn (Haut-Bhin). An. Sc. Nat. Zool. xiv. p. 5.

Dumoetiee, E.— Sur quelques fossiles recueilles pres deCax (Landes).
Soc. Geol. Bull. xvii. p. 241.

Edwaeds, A. M. — Infusorial Marl from Milwaukie. Boston S. N.
H. Pr. vii.

Edwaeds, F. E. — Description of the Pitharella Richnani. Geol.
1860.

Egeeton, P. G. — Palichthyologic Notes. No. 12. Bemarks on the
Nomenclature of the Devonian Fishes. Geol. Journ. xvi. p. 119.

Eichwald, E. d' — Lethea Bossica ou paleontologie de la Bussie. Liv.
7. 8vo. and atlas of plates, folio. Stuttgart, 1860.

Emmet. — Foraminifera of the Bed and White Sandstone of York-
shire. Geol. 1860.

Ewald. — Ueber die fossile Fauna der unteren Gault bei Ahaus in
Westphalen. Berl. Mon. 1860. (&)

Falconee, H. — On the Ossiferous " Grotta di Maccagnone," near
Palermo. Geol. Journ. xvi. p. 99.

and Peestwich, Jos. — On the Ossiferous Caves of the

Peninsula of Gower, in Glamorganshire, South "Wales. With an
Appendix on a Baised Beach in Mewslade Bay, and the occurrence
of the Boulder Clay on Cefn-y-Bryn. (Abstract.) Geol. Journ.
xvi. p. 487.
VOL. i.— n. h. e. 2 z

352 BIBLIOGRAPHY.

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PALEONTOLOGY. 353

Goeppert, H. E. — Ueb. die fossile Flora der silurischen, der devonis-

clieu u. unteren Kolileiiformation od. d. sogenannten Uebergangs-

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Griepe-Kerl, O. — Erne neue Ceratiten-Forin aus dent untersten

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Grueitowaldt, M. v. — Zur Kenntniss d. sedimentaren Gebirgsfor-

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VOL. I. — N. H. E. 3 A

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PHANEROGAMIA. 361

Species occurring in the North of Italy, but absent from South
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Brachy aster is substituted for the generic name Bellidiastrum.

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The descriptive portion of this paper is preceded by a short
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the peculiarities of its flora, its general relations, and the geogra-
phical distribution of the species. The total number of natural
orders found at Aden is 42 ; of genera, 80 ; species, 95. The
proportion of species to natural orders, 2 29:1. But eleven of
the 95 species are monocotyledons, and of these nine are grasses.
Fourteen species are endemic. Dr. Anderson unites all the de-
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With a list of 40 species found in Nice and Monacho, and
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- Mr. Ball observes that the more the genera of Cruciferse are
studied with ample suites of specimens, the less possible does it
become to base their classification upon positive characters.

Apropos of this paper M. Cosson observed that characters
derived from the relative position of the radicle and the cotyledons,
and the form of the latter, are less constant than has been gene-
rally conceived.

Beddome, E. H. — Eeport on the Vegetable Products of the Pulney
Hills. (Extract from Madras Journal), pp. 40.

Bentham, G-eorge. — Notes on Ternstroemiaceae. Linn. Proc. v. pp.
53-65.

Consisting, in part, of critical observations on the " Memoire
sur les Ternstroamiacees et les Camelliacees" published by M.
Choisy in 1855 ; in part, the result of a recent revision of the
genera for the " Flora of Hong-Kong," and the " Genera Plan-
tarum," in course of preparation by the author in conjunction
with Dr. Hooker.

The separation of TernstrcEmiacese from Camelliaceae, as pro-
posed by Choisy, Mr. Bentham objects to as unnatural and not
sustained by any positive character.

Sauranja with the allied genera Actinidla (referred by Dr.
Lindley to Dilleniaceae) and Stachyurus, are appended to Tern-

362 BIBLIOGRAPHY.

stroemiacese as a small separate tribe. Scapha, Ch. and Dray-
tonia, A. Gr. are united with Saurauja. Thea, as modified by
Seemann, is regarded as a section of Camellia rather than as
generically distinct. Btaploclathra, a new genus founded on
opposite-leaved species of Caraipa, and Marila, are referred to
BonnetiesB as anomalous members. Visneacece, Ch. is incorpo-
rated with Ternstroemiacese. Bentaphylax is appended to the same
tribe.

Ixionanthes and Ochthocosmus, Mr. Bentham excludes from
the order. He considers them allied to Saxifrageae. Marcgraa-
viacese, Juss. are included in Ternstroemiacese proper ; — the genus
Antholonia, which has been associated with this group, De Labil-
lardiere's figure would indicate to be a Bassia.

Tristylium, Turcz. is reduced to Cleyera, and XowalewsJcia,
published as Ternstroemiaceous by the same botanist, is a Mexi-
can Clethra. Descriptions of the species of Caraipa, and of four
new Ternstroemiaceee, collected by Mr. Spruce, are appended to
this paper.
Bentham, George. — Notes on Anonacese. Linn. Proc. v. pp. 67-72.

Eeferring especially to the American species. Mr. Bentham,
with Dr. Hooker, proposes to suppress the tribe Anonece, uniting
it with Xylopiece. Oxymitra, Bhceanthus and Monodora are in-
cluded in the modified tribe Mitrephorece.

Guatteriece takes the name of Unonece, the American genus
Guatteria belonging to the Uvariece, which are characterized by
petals imbricate in aestivation. The Asiatic species which have
been referred to Guatteria are reduced to Bolyalthia.

Guatteria heteropetala, Benth., allied to Bliceantlius, is sepa-
rated as the type of a new genus — Heteropetalum, as is also Tlvaria
brasiliensis, Veil., under the name Cymbopetalum.

New species of Trigyneia and Bocagea are described from
South America and a Monodora from the Niger. The ovary of
the latter genus Mr. Bentham finds to consist of numerous
carpels, as indicated by its longitudinal furrows and the curva-
tures or lobation of the peltate centrical stigma.
Botanical Memoranda. Linn. Proc. v. pp. 73-8.

1. Involucre of Anemone. Regarded as a single amplexicaul
leaf divided to the base into distinct segments.

2. Stigmas of Bapaveracece. In Bomneyece and in Hypecoum
the stigmatic summits of the carpels remain distinct and alter-
nate with the placentas, indicating an approach to the apocar-
pous structure of Bammculacese. In the rest of the order the
stigmas, or even the summit of all the carpels are more or less
confluent, as may be traced in gradation from Stylopkorum
through Bocconia, Sanguinaria, Chelidonium, Argemone, Meco-
nopsis and other genera to Bapaver, in which the radiating stigmas
answer to the stigmatic margins of the summits of the carpel-
lary leaves, and are consequently over the placentas.

rHANEROGAMIA. 363

3. The species of Ventilago, a genus of Bhamnaceae. Mr.
Benthain reduces the Indian species, of which sufficient material
has been received, to three, of which diagnoses are given.

4. The Memecyla of Cuming's collections, with the synonymy
of four species.

5. A Chinese species of Calogyne, a genus of Groodeniaceae.
Curious as the second species of the order, apart from the mari-
time Sccevolas, found out of Australia. It was collected near
Amoy.

Beistham, George. — On Fissicalyx, a new genus of Dalbergiese. Linn.
Proc. v. pp. 78-9. Proin Venezuela, Pendler's Coll. No. 2223.

Berg. — Charackteristik der fur die Arzneikunde und Technik wich-
tigsten Pflanzengattungen in Illustrationen. Liefng. viii.-ix.
Berlin, 1860.

Berg, O. — Ueber die Knollen des Sturmhuts (Aconite). Bonpl.
viii. Jahrg. pp. 352-5.

Bergsma, M. — Sur le Phenomene dit Ponction de la Eespiration
des Plantes. L'Hortic. Univ. 1860, pp. 278-281.

Boott, Prantcis. — Illustrations of the genus Carex. Yol. i. part 2.
Pol. London, 1860. With plates.

"With detailed descriptions of 262 species. A plate of each is
furnished ; in the case of C. baccans, C. Bengalensis, C. indica,
and the more variable types, a series of figures is given. Seven
species are described for the first time.

Borszczow, El. — Die Aralo-Caspischen Calligoneen. Petersb. Mem.
Tom. in. No. 1. 45 pp. with 3 plates.

Contains observations on the history and literature of the
genus Calliffomcm, Linn, (with which the genera Fterococcus,
Pall, and Calliphysa, P. et M. are united), its modus crescendi,
physiognomy, development, geographical distribution and sta-
tistics, properties and uses.

The total number of species is reckoned at 25, all of which
are exclusively Asiatic, with the exception of G. comosum, which
extends from Persia, across North Africa to the Canaries. The
majority of species — at least 14— are peculiar to the Aralo- Caspian
basin. Many of the species of Calligonum afford a gummy
product, as observed by Pallas, which flows from wounds both
in the branches and older stems ; in very hot weather exuding
from herbaceous parts of the plant. The commonest species,
C. Pallasia, besides serving as a good fuel, furnishes the food
of the Steppe-mice (Cricetus, Meriones) which live under its
bushes. Most of the species are capable of affording a dye,
which has not, however, been investigated. Twenty Calligonums
are described ; eleven of them, discovered by Herr Borszczow on
his journey in 1857-8, as new.

Die pharmaceutisch-wichtigen Perulaceen der Aralo-Cas-
pischen Wiiste, nebst allgemeinen Untersuchungen iiber die
Abstammuno- der im Handel vorkommenden Guinmiharze,

364 BIBLIOGRAPHY.

Asa-foetida, Ammoniacurn unci Gralbanum. With 8 plates. St.
Petersb. Mem. iii. 40 pp.

A description, with figures, is given of a new Ferula, (near
F. soongarica, Pall.), called " Schair" by the inhabitants, the
milk-sap of which possesses the characteristics of Gralbanum,
which latter is stated to be obtained from Ferula rubricaulis,
Boiss.

Brown, Robert. — Phanerogamous Plants and Perns of Caithness.
Trans. Bot. Soc. Edinb. vi. pp. 328-9.

A list of species new to the " North Highland" province of
Watson's " Cybele Britannica" is given.

Buckley, S. B. — Descriptions of several new species of Plants.
Phil. Acad. Proc. 1860, p. 443.

Buiise, P. — Aufzahlung der auf einer Reise durch Transkaukasien
und Persien gesammelten Pflanzen in Gremeinschaft mit Dr. E.
Boissier in G-enf bearbeitet. Nouv. Mem. Soc. Imp. Nat.
Moscou. xii. pp. 246. With 10 plates and a map.

Nearly seventy pages are devoted to Dr. Buhse's itinerary,
including extended notices of the vegetation and physical features
of his route, which extended by Erivan (1847) and the Caucasus
through Tabriz and Ardebil to Teheran (1848), thence to Aste-
rabad, Jesd (1849) and Ispahan ; returning by the Caspian.
One of the most interesting plants collected was a new Ferula
(F. galbaniflua, sp. nov.) affording Griim Gralbanum. It was
frequent about the Demavend mountains to the north-east of
Teheran, at an elevation of from 4 to 8000 feet. Many new
species are described, including 17 of Astragalus.

Bttigknet, H. — Recherches sur la matiere sucree contenue dans les
fruits acides, son origine, sa nature et ses transformations. 59
pp. 4to. Paris, 1860.

Cantoni, GrAETAiro. — Nuovi principi cli fisiologia vegetale applicati
all' agricoltura. 24 pp. 8vo. Milan, 1860.

Carriere, M. — Considerations generates sur l'espece. Exemples de
variation et de formation des races, &c. Rev. Hort. 1860. pp.
555-559, 613-616, 639-643.

Robinier faux-acacia monophylle, 1. c. pp. 629-632. With

figures.

A variety of Fobinia pseud-acacia raised by a Prench nursery-
man, usually developing but terminal leaflets, which acquire a
length of 5 to 6 inches.

Carttel, Th. — Proclromo della Plora toscana. 8vo. pp. 127. Flo-
rence, 1860. Paris, Bailliere.

Caspary, Robt. — Einige Pelorien (Orchis latifolia, L., Columnca
Schiedeana, Schldl., Digitalis purpurea, L.) Konigsb. Phys. Gles.
Schrift. 1860. pp. 59-65.

Bulliarda aquatica, DC. 1. c. pp. 66-91.

An account of its structure, history, and distribution.

• Ueber Sonnenrisse. 1. c. pp. 92-4.

PHA3CEBOGAMIA. 365

Observations by Hr. Busolt on cracks in the bark and cam-
bium-layer of the Lime, occasioned by exposure to the sun.

Caspabt, Bobt. — Flora des Kolner Doms. Bonn. Verhand. d. N.
H. Y. I860, pp. 331-2.

A list of fifteen Phaneroganiia collected on a terrace of the
unfinished south-west tower of Cologne Cathedral, at an eleva-
tion of 177 feet, on two visits in Sept. 1857 and May, 1858. Of
these Privet, Dog-Bose and Violet have probably been planted in
soil carried up for them.

Cuaboisseatt, L'Abbe. — Observations sur douze especes de Ruins
du Departement de la Yienne. Bull. Soc. Botan. Tom. vii. pp.
265-9.

Chapman, A. W. — Flora of the "Southern United States, containing
an abridged description of the Flowering Plants and Ferns of
Tennessee, N. and S. Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi,
and Florida. The Ferns by D. C. Eaton. 1 vol. Svo. New
York, I860.

An Introduction includes a brief sketch of the Elements of
Botany, a Glossary of Terms and an Analysis of the Natural
Orders. Synopses of the genera are given in the larger Orders.

Chaten", A. — Orclre des Thesiacees ou Santalacees, Bapports de leur
structure anatomique avec leur classification. C. Bend. Oct.
16, I860.

Choist, Pkof. — Du genre Discostigma (Hassk.) appartenant a la
Famille des Clusiacees. Glen. Mem. xv. pp. 431-9. With 2
plates.

Founded on the plant distributed by Zollinger under No.
3276. A supposed second species of the genus figured (Zoll. No.
1192) is apparently Eubiaceous.

Cohn, F. — Ueber contractile u. irritable Gewebe d. Pflanzen. Virch.
Arch. xxii. p. 405.

Coldsthea:m, W. — Experiments with Ana?sthetic Agents on Sensitive
Plants. Trans. Bot. Soc. Edinb. vi. pp. 390-7.

A true anaesthesia was most decided in experiments on the
irritable stamens of Herberts, exposed to the action of Chloro-
form, Amylene, Sulphuric and Chloric Ether. Immediately after
exposure to the vapour, the stamens sprung towards the pistil,
returning slowly to their former position. They were then found
to be destitute of irritability. Their irritable condition was
usually restored by exposure to the sun.

Cosson, E. — Note sur le Gagea Bohemica. Bull. Soc. Botan. Tom.
vii. pp. 212-13.

Near Nemours this species appears to multiply itself princi-
pally by bulbils which detach from the bulbs of the parent plants ;
the fertilization of the ovules being imperfect. M. Cosson is
satisfied that Gr. saxatilis, Koch, and Gr. lohemica, Schult. are
specifically identical.

Sur les hybrides de l'herbier de M. de Franqueville (obtenus

366 BIBLIOGEAPHY.

artificiellement par K. F. Gaertner). Bull. Soc. Botan. Tom.
vii. pp. 343-4.

A list of the parent species of 40 hybrids is given, belonging
to the following genera, viz. : — Dianthus, Lychnis, Silene, OEno-
thera, Lobelia, Nicotiana, Verbascum, and Digitalis.

Costa, A. C. — Index Seminum in horto botanico Archigymnasii
Barcinonensis. Ann. S. N. ser. iv. (Bot.) Tom. xiii. pp. 103-5.

Cetjoee, H. — Die Entwickelung der Blume von Napoleona imperials,
Beauv. Bot. Z. 1860, 361-6. With figures.

The double corona and the discoid ring surrounding the pistil
originate subsequent to the development of the staminal whorl ;
the inner corona is adnate below with the filaments. The affini-
ties of Napoleona are discussed.

Einiges ueber die Gewebsveranderungen bei der Fortpflan-

zung durch Stecklinge. Bot. Z. 1860, 369-374. "With 1 plate.

Ceockee, C. W. — Notes on the Germination of certain species of
Cyrtandreae. Linn. Proc. v. pp. 65-7. With 1 plate.

The cotyledons of Streptocarpus polyanthus at first equal, be-
come in a few days after germination remarkably unequal, the
larger continuing its expansion until it attains frequently a foot
in length, constituting usually the only leaf of the plant. A simi-
lar development of one cotyledon is exhibited by S. JRexii and
S. biflorus. Mr. Crocker's observations agree with those pre-
viously published by Dr. Caspary.

Cuzent, G. — Tahiti. Eecherches sur les principales productions
vegetales de Tile. 8vo. pp. 275. Paris, 1860. V. Masson.

Daeach, De. — Plants flowering in the neighbourhood of Philadel-
phia during the months of July, August, September and October.
Phil. Acad. Proc. 1860, pp. 511-515.

Delavaud, C. — Fleurs soudees et peloriees de Linaria striata. Bull.
Soc. Botan. Tom. vii. pp. 174-5.

Dickson, Alexaitoee.— On some Bisexual Cones occurring in the
Spruce Fir (Abies excelsa). Trans. Bot. Soc. Edinb. vi. pp.
418-423.

The lower portion of these cones was covered with stamens,
the upper producing bracts and scales as in normal female cones.
Dr. Dickson found the bracts of the terminal portion to be seri-
ally continuous with the stamens of the lower part.

Dippel.— Ueber die Entstehung und den Bau der Tiipfel. 1. Die
Tiipfel der Holz und Geiasszellen. 2. Die Tiipfel in den Quer-
wanden dikotyler GefasszeUen. Bot. Z. 1860, pp. 329-336.
With 2 plates.

The development of the "pits" or " pores" on the wood-cells
and vessels, takes place in a similar manner in all plants provided
with them, which were examined by the author. He selects
Pinus as especially suited for their study, from the large size of
the pits, and its ready accessibility. The " pit" (Tiipfel), which
is a closed pore widened at its base, is first formed by a folding-

PHAKEROGAMIA.

in of the primary cell-wall all round. Its further formation
results, in part, from the extension of this projecting fold, in part
from the deposition of thickening layers around it. The original
membrane dividing two opposed pores, becomes absorbed when
the adjacent cells contain air, and persists in those which continue
to be filled with fluid.

Dresser, C. — The Morphological Import of certain Vegetable Or-
gans. Trans. Bot. Soc. Edinb. vi pp. 321-2.

The Stem or Axis as the Fundamental Organ in the Vege-
table Structure. 1. c. pp. 432-4.

Duchartre, P. — Note sur le Lilas blanchi par la culture forcee. Bull.
Soc. Botan. Tom. vii. pp. 152-4.

Dufotjr, Leox. — De la valeur historique et sentimentale d'un her-
bier. Souvenirs d'Espagne (Suite). Bull. Soc. Botan. Tom.
vii. pp. 146-151, 169-173.

Diagnoses et Observations critiques sur quelques plantes

d'Espagne malconnues ou nouvelles. Bull. Soc. Botan. Tom. vii.
pp. 221-7, 240-7, 323-328, 347-352.

Eng-el, L. C. — Influence des climats et de la culture sur les pro-
prietes medicales des plantes. 35 pp. 4to. Strasburg, 1860.

Fermokd, Ch. — Note sur les fruits et l'ecorce du Sapindus divari-
catus du Bresil. Bull. Soc. Botan. Tom. vii. pp. 214-219.

A detailed account is furnished of the fruit, seed, and bark
of this Sapindus, sent from Brazil as the produce of a tree called
the " Savonnier" or " Arlre-a-savon ;" the " Pao-de-Sabao" men-
tioned by M. Guibourt in " Hist, Nat. des Drogues."

Eremt, E. — Eecherches sur la matiere colorante verte des Eeuilles.
Ann. S. N. Ser. iv. (Bot.) Tom. xiii. pp. 45-53.

M. Eremy resolves the colouring matter of chlorophyll into
blue and yellow elements by treatment with a mixture of ether
and dilute hydrochloric acid. The blue substance he calls phyllo-
cyanine ; the yellow, pkylloxanthine. The latter is the more
stable element, and is found in autumnal as well as nascent
leaves, from which phyllocyanine is absent.

Garcke, A.' — Ueber die Stellung von Plagianthus and Hoheria in
Natiirlichen Systeme. Bonplandia, 1860, pp. 365-7.

Confirms the relation of these genera to Malvaceae by the
structure of the pollen granules, which are dotted with the warts
characteristic of this Order : not smooth as in Sterculiaceae.

Gay, J. — Le Printemps de 1860, compare a celui de 1859, dans son
eflet sur la floraison de quelques plantes observees a Paris. Bull.
Soc. Botan. Tom. vii. pp. 307-8.

Elowering was retarded in the case of the nine species (of
Ajacc, Narcissus, and Syringa intermedia) observed from 12 to 31
days.

Nouvelles observations sur la Couronne des Narcissees. 1. c.

pp. 309-16. With woodcuts.

From an examination of some partially double flowers of JSrar-

VOL. I. — N. H. R. 3 B

368 BIBLIOGRAPHY.

cissus poeticus collected in the south of France, M. Gay concludes
that the corona is not a special organ nor an appendage com-
parable to stipules, but that it is formed by the marginal union
of the dilated connectives of three metamorphosed anthers.
GrAUDrN", Ch. T. — Sur la vegetation contemporaine de l'homme primitif.

Arch. Sc. Phys. et Nat. Aug. 1860, p. 280.
Goppeet, H. E. — Ueber die Anordnung der Alpenpflanzen im bota-
nischen Garten zu Breslau. Flora, 1860, pp. 561-8.

Arranged with a view to afford popular instruction in the
character and general relations of the Floras of high latitudes and
elevations.
Gbenieb, Ch. — Eecherches sur le Posidonia Caulini, Kon. Bull.
Soc. Botan. Tom. vii. pp. 362-6.

An account of notices of the species from the time of Homer,
with its synonymy.
Gbis, Abthtje.— Note sur une plante qui constitue probablement un
nouveau genre de la Tribu des Marantees. Bull. Soc. Botan.
Tom. vii. pp. 320-322,

This plant, allied to Phrynium, is described under the name of
Marantochloa Comorensis. Ad. Br.

Note sur l'origine et le mode de Formation des Canaux peri-

spermiques dans la Graine des Marantees. Ann. S. N. Ser. iv.
(Bot.) Tom. xiii. pp. 97-102. With 2 plates. Also BuU. Soc.
Botan. Tom. vii. pp. 237-9.

The canals, which are branches of the chalaza, are due to the
curvature of the axis of the nucleus. Their formation may be
traced as the ovule assumes its campylotropous form, from, at first,
slight depressions to the long narrow blind canals, which were
considered by E. Brown to be due to aborted embryos.
Geisebach, A. H. E. — Flora of the British West Indian Islands.
Sect. i. pt. 3. Leguminosse (Teramnus) to Loranthaceae. With
Index to Section I.

New genera described are Prioria (Leguminosse, near Copai-
fera) ; Anamomis (Myrtacese) ; PJuryckcenia, Chcenopleura, Criig.,
Pleurochcenia, Octopleura (Melastomacea?) ; Cionandra, Gionosicys
(Cucurbitaceae) ; Triads and Trilolacis (Turneracese).

A synoptical key is given to the West Indian genera of Me-
lastomacea?, 29 in number. Several of the generic descriptions
are re-written.

Erlauterungen ausgewahlter Pflanzen des tropischen Ame-

rikas. 58 pp. 4to. (Ext. Bd. ix. Ablm. K. G. Wissen. Gottingen),
1860.

This brochure was published simultaneously with the first
volume of the author's " Flora of the British West Indian Islands,"
and serves to explain the grounds upon which certain changes,
chiefly affecting generic or ordinal circumscription, were intro-
duced into that work.

Phytolaccacea?. The genus Aadestis, Moc. Sess., referred by
De Candolle to Menispermacese, and by Prof. Grisebach to Phyto-
laccacese, as suggested by Mr. Bentham? is described in detail.

PHANEROGAMIA. 369

Amarantaceae. Woelileria, a new genus from Cuba, is described.

Euphorbiaceae. Critical observations upon the affinities of
the Order and its subdivision into Tribes and Subtribes. The West
Indian genera are grouped under the following sections, viz. : —

A. Ovarii loculi 2-ovulati.

Trib. I. Buxece. Capsula loculicida, dissepimentis connexis.

Sernina ecarunculata.
Trib. II. Bhyllanthece. Capsula in coccos divisa v. baccata,
Semina srepius ecarunculata.
Subtrib. 1. Drypetece.
Subtrib. 2. Euphyllanthece.

B. Ovarii loculi 1-ovulati.

Trib. III. Crotonece. Capsula in coccos divisa, raro baccata.

Subtrib. 1. Iatrophece.

Subtrib. 2. Ricinece.

Subtrib. 3. Eucrotonece.

Subtrib. 4. Ditaxidece.

Subtrib. 5. Acalyphece.

Subtrib. 6. Hippomanece.

Subtrib. 7. JZuphorbiece.
The genera Acidocroton, Gr., Mettenia, Gr., Adelia, L., Ber-
nardia, P. Br., Lasiocroton, Gr. and Leucocroton, Gr. (gen. nov.)
are described at length.

Bixineae. The following tribes are proposed, viz. : —

1. Bixece. Capsula sicca, medianicida. Stamina hypogyna,
indefinita.

2. Flacourtianece. Pericarpium carnosum. Stamina disco
libero inserta.

3. Prockiece. Pericarpium carnosum, indehiscens. Stamina
disco perigyno inserta.

4. Samydece. Pericarpium dehiscens. Stamina perigyna. —
Pedicelli articulati.

Diagnoses are given of the genera Samyda, L., Guidonia, Gr.,
Casearia, Iq., Casinga, Gr. (nov. gen.), and Sadymia, Gr.

Malpighiacese. Henlea, is a new genus, founded on a Cuban
plant of Eugels.

Eutacea?. Prof. Grisebach adopts, as sub tribes,

1. Pilocarpece. 2. Zanthoxylece, and 3. Simarubece.

Juglandese. The character of the group is modified to admit
JPicrodendron, PL, which is described from additional and more
complete material.

Melastornacese. Critical observations on the structure of the
seed, embryo, and anthers, with a review of the West Indian
genera, (vide supra.).
Geisebacu, A. H. E. — Plantse Wrightiana3 e Cuba Orientali (Poly-
petalae et Apetalae). Smith. Contr. viii. pp. 153-192.

Determinations of Mr. C. Wright's plants collected from 1856
to 1860, with the distribution numbers.

370 BIBLIOGEAPHY.

Phlebot&nia (Poly galeae), Ditto, (Euphorbiaceae), Carpodiptera
(Bombacese), Bheedia (Guttiferse), Gyrotcenia (Urticacese), Lino-
dendron (Thymelese), are the new genera described.

Halliee, Eenst. — Bewegung der Pflanzen gegen verschiedene Licht-
quellen, beobachtet nnd gemessen an Ornithogalum caudatum,
Ait.-Plora, 1860, pp. 689-694.

Herr Hallier found the scape more susceptible to reflected
than to direct solar light. It was similarly affected by artificial
light, the stem bending rather towards a sheet of white paper
than to the taper illuminating it.

Hanstein, Johannes. — Versuche uber die Leitung des saftes
durch die Einde und Polgerungen daraus. Pringsheim's Jahr-
bucher fur Wiss. Botanik. Bd. ii. pp. 392-467.

The subject is discussed under the several heads of, (1.) Can
the roots nourish themselves ? or whence and in what manner do
they receive assimilated nutrient matter ? (2.) Can leaves alone
assimilate nutriment ? or what is required besides them to effect
this ? (3.) By what channel does the plastic sap ascend to its
destination ? (4.) What has the bark to do with the passage of re-
dissolved substances which have been in reserve, and of assimilated
sap ? (5.) Which are especially the sap-conducting tissues of
the bark ? Among the general results of the author's enquiries
are the following. Both roots and leaves together, must effect
the assimilation of the various nutrient elements which they each
take up ; neither can, apart from the other, assimilate. The sap
is conveyed from the root to the leaves by the wood, the bark
alone serves as the return channel for the assimilated matter. In
uninjured plants the bark directly conveys, both upwards and
downwards, the plastic sap derived from the leaves, and without
the supply of this channel neither are the leaf-buds developed, the
fruits matured, or the elements of the wood duly thickened. The
bark also appears to be concerned in re-conveying to the buds
dissolved reserve-nutriment. The unthickened bundles of liber-
cells (BastrShren) probably serve as the principal special cortical
system, conveying the plastic sap ; the cambium layer itself would
seem to take as little part in the descent of formative sap as it
does in the upward flow of the wood-sap.

Haetingee, Ant. — Oesterreich's u. Deutschland's wildwachsende od.
Garten gezogene Giftpflanzen. Nothwendiger Atlas zu Adf.
JNrtsche's Giftpflanzenbuch u. Giftpflanzen-Kalender, in natur-
getreuen Abbildgn. 1. Lfg. gr. Pol. (4 chromolith. Blatt.)
Wien, (Wallishausser's B.)

Heee, Oswald. — Untersuchungen tiber das Klima und die Vegeta-
tionsverh'altnisse des Tertiaren landes. (Separatabdruck aus Bd. iii.
d. tertiaren Plora der Schweiz). Winterthur, 1860.

Heney, Aime. — TJeber die Bildung der Wurzelfasern von Sedum
Telephium, S. maximum und 8. Fabaria. With 2 plates. Bonn.
Yerhand, d. N. H. V. 1860, pp. 1-12.

PHANEROGAMIA. 371

A description of the internal structure, (1st.) of the steins of
the above species, which offer no peculiarity—and (2nd.) of the
root and root-fibres, which become thickened and tuberiform.
After passing into the root, the circle of woody tissue which, in
the stem, is interposed between the pith and bark, resolves itself
into two to six distinct rings or bundles which traverse the greatly
developed, starch-abounding parenchyma of the tuber, and ulti-
mately, in approaching the extremity of the root converge, re-
uniting to form a single central mass. The author compares this
structure in Sedum, — the independent woody bundles of the
tubers — to certain abnormal liane formations figured by Graudi-
chaud from a certain South American Sapindacea.

Hoffman, Eh. — Jahresbericht uber die Eortschritte der Agricul-
turchemie mit besonderer Berucksichtigung der Pflanzenchemie
und Pflanzenphysiologie. Vol. II. 1859-60. 8vo. Berlin, 1861.

Hooker, J. D. — Illustrations of the Moras of the Malayan Archipe-
lago, and of Tropical Africa. Linn. Trans, xxiii. pp. 155-172
With 9 plates.

The new genera described are Disepalwn, Sphcerothalamus
(Anonaceae) ; Pacliynocarpus (Dipterocarpese) ; Irvingia (Sima-
rubeae) ; Pentaspadon, HaematostapJiis, Parishia (AnacardieEe) ;
Trigonochlamys, Triomma (Burserese) ; Hemiandrina (Conna-
raceae). Mgures are given of most of these.

— An account of the Plants collected by Dr. Walker in Green-
land and Arctic America, during the expedition of Sir Francis
M'Clintock, B.K, in the yacht " Pox." Linn. Proc. v. pp. 79-89.
The principal interest of Dr. Walker's collection attaches to
an herbarium of 46 flowering and 58 cryptogamic plants gathered
at Port Kennedy, in the Peninsula of Boothia, the flora of which
was previously unknown. The Port Kennedy Morula appears to be
poorer than that of the surrounding islands, although favoured by
the absence of snow for about four months each year, and ample
variety of surface. Tables are given by Dr. Hooker of 20 species
occurring in Melville Island, which are wanting at Port Kennedy ;
of 6 species found at the latter absent from Melville Island ; of
5 species of Port Kennedy plants absent from the Western shores
of Baffin's Bay, (Pond's Bay to Heme Bay), and 7 absent from
the Western Islands. Catalogues are appended of the collection :
The Musci and Lichens, by Mr. Mitten, the Algae, by Dr. Dickie,
and the Fungi, by Mr. Berkeley. Observations on temperature,
&c. at Point Kennedy, are added by Dr. Walker.

Hooker, W. J. and Gr. A. Walker- Arnott.— The British Mora.
Ed. viii. London, 1860.

Hooker, W. J. — Curtis's Botanical Magazine. Ser. iii. vol. xvi.
London, 1860.

Including Begonia frigida, DC. bearing occasionally flowers
with superior carpels; Narthex Asafcetida, Falc. and Cocos
ptumosa, Hk.

372 BLBLIOGEAPHY.

Howaed, J. E. — Illustrations of the Nueva Quinologia of Pavon.
Parts 5 and 6, with 6 plates. Pol. London, 1860.

Htjet, A. — Sur diverses plantes decouvertes dans le Department du
Var. Bull. Soc. Botan. Tom. vii. pp. 344-6.

Jamais, Alex. — Sur une excursion scientifique aux environs de
Cherbourg en Juin 1859. Bull. Soc. Botan. Tom. vii. pp. 157-164.

Jaeden", Edel. — Supplement au Zephyritis taitensis de Guillemin.
Mem. Soc. Sc. Nat. Cherbourg, vii. pp. 239-244.

Kaesten, H. — Plora3 Coluinbise Terrarumque adjacentium specimina
selecta. Tom. i. Ease. 3. Berlin, 1860. Polio. 20 plates.

Marssonia, a new genus of Primulacese with the habit of
Cyrtandrese, is described.

Kaesten, Heematcn\ — Zur Parthenogenesis. Bot. Z. 1860, 387-8.
Observations on a criticism of Schleiden's upon Dr. Karsten's
omitting to notice the persistence of the stigma in his remarks
upon the occurrence of normal fertilization in Coelebogne (in ' Das
Geschlechtsleben der Pflanzen und die Parthenogenesis').

Keenee, A. — Niederosterreichische "Weiden. Yien. Z. B. V. 1860.
Separatabdruck, pp. 160.

Chamitea, g. n. is founded upon Salix reticulata.

Die Eormationen immergriiner Ericineen in den nordlichen

Kalkalpen. (Schluss.) Pt. 3. Bonpl. viii. Jahrg. pp. 305-8.

Kieschlegee, Ee. — Observations sur la derniere livraison des anno-
tations a la flore de Erance et d'Allemagne de M. C. Billot.
Bull. Soc. Botan. Tom. vii. pp. 375-381.

Elore d' Alsace. 3e volume. 2epartie. Guide du botaniste

herborisateur a travers 1' Alsace et les montagnes des Vosges.
12mo. Strasbourg, 1860.

Klotzsch, Ee. — Linne's Natiirliche Pflanzenklasse Tricoccce des Ber-
liner Herbarium's im AEgemeinen und die naturliche Ordnung
Euphorbia cece insbesondere. Berlin, 1860. 4to. pp. 108. (Aus
Abh. K. Ak. Wissen.).

Under the head of ' Tricocca,' Linnaeus, in i Philosophica Bo-
tanica' (1751) grouped, on the ground of their close natural
affinity, a number of genera for which A. L. de Jussieu, in his
1 Grenera Plantarum' (1791) proposed the name JSujihorbice, and
which constitute, with the additions since made to them, the
Euplwrbiacece of most recent writers.

Prof. Klotzsch, with his colleague Dr. Grarcke, proposes to
break up the group into six ' natural orders,' viz. (uni- ovulate)
Euphorbiacea?, Peraceas, Acalyphacese, (bi- rarely uni- ovulate),
Buxacese, Phyllanthacea?, Antidesmacese.

His Order Euphorbiacese, based upon the genus JEttphorbia as
commonly received, Pedilanthus and Anthostema, is to consist of
19 genera, the section Euphorbiese, EX and Grk. including 15,
viz. (A. Anisophylla3 — Involucri lobimembranacei,basi callo varii-
formi (glandula) instructi). Anisophyllum, Haw., Alectoroctonum,
Schlecht, Tricherosterigma, Kl. and Gk., Eumecanthus, EX and

PHAOTlROaAMIA- 373

Gk., Tithgmalopsis, KL and Gk., Dichropliyllum, Kl. and Gk.,
Leptopus, Kl. and Gk., Adenopetalum, Kl. andGk., (B. Tithymalse,
— Involucri lobi exteriores supra callo carnoso(Glandula)toti tecti),
Euphorbia, L., Medusea, Kl. and Gk., Arthrothamnus, Kl. and Gk.,
Tithymalus, Scop, (to which belong most of the British species),
Sterigmanthe, Kl. and Gk., Eupliorhiastrum, Kl. and Gk., Poin-
settia, Grah.

Section Pedilanthese, Kl. and Gk. includes Pedilanthus, Neck.,
Hexadenia, Kl. and Gk. and Diadenaria, Kl. and Gk. ; — Antho-
steineae, Kl. and Gk., the genus Anthostema, Juss.

Besides nearly ninety pages devoted to a systematic enumera-
ration of species, &c. the essay contains a historical sketch of the
Tricoccae, the treatment of the group by various authors, critical
remarks on M. Baillon's work on Euphorbiacea?, and observations
upon the changes proposed by the author.
Kokntcke, Fr. — Monographic Marantearum Prodromus. — Nouv.
Mem. Soc. Imp. Nat. Moscou. Tom. xi. pp. 297-362. With
8 plates.

The author's investigations on the structure of the flower in
Marantaceae are based upon species cultivated in the St. Peters-
burg Botanic Garden and upon herbarium specimens. He regards
the corolla as tripetalous, and the staminodia as biserial. In Ma-
ranta (and Phrynium) there are two staminodia in the outer
series ; in Calatliea, Thalia, and Ischnosiplion, but one ; while in
Monosticlie, Marantopsis, and Distention, they are entirely want-
ing. The three staminodia of the inner series are either all pre-
sent,— one bearing the fertile anther-cell, — or (in Distemon) one
is abortive.

The structure of the several whorls of the flower in various
genera is described in detail, as also that of the fruit and seed.

The distinctions between Cannaceae and Zingiberaceae are
summed up as follows. In Cannaceae, it is the inner circle of
staminodia, which, by preference, is developed, while the outer
always remains incomplete. The fifth staminodium is petaloid
and bears the fertile half-anther.

In Zingiberaceae, it is especially the outer circle of staminodia
which becomes developed, the inner always remaining imperfect.
The fertile stamen is the sixth of the series. It is symmetrical
and bears a perfect anther.

A synopsis and critical descriptions of the genera of Marantecz
(adopted as a Tribe of Cannaceae) is given. Ischnodphon and
MonosticJie are genera founded by the author on South American
and West Indian species. The characters of the last genus are
not contrasted in the synoptical key owing to the allied genus
Calatliea being described, through a lapsus, as destitute of an outer
staminodium. The species are not described.
■ — ■ Ueber Calathea fasciata, Bgl. et Kor. und einige andere bunt-

374 BIBLIOGRAPHY.

blattrige Maranteen.— Mitth«? Euss. Gartenb. Ver. 1860. Heft 2.
pp. 81-97.

Landeeek, Dr. — Botanische Mittheilungen aus Griechenland. Flora.
1860, pp. 705-713. Referring chiefly to economic products.

Lange, Joh. — Pugillus plantarum imprimis hispanicarum. 82 pp.
8vo. Copenhagen, 1860. (Ext. Nat. Videns. Med. 1860.)

Lawes, J. B., J. H. Gilbebt, and E. Pugh.— On the Sources of the
Nitrogen of Vegetation, with special reference to the question
whether Plants assimilate free or uncombined Nitrogen. (Abstract.)
E. S. Proc. 21 June, 1860. pp. 16.

The experiments of the authors with certain Graminaceae and
Leguminosae did not indicate the assimilation of free nitrogen by-
plants.

Eurther investigations are required upon the question, and also
as to the sources whence combined nitrogen may be derived by
vegetation.

Lawson, Geokge. — Contributions to Microscopical Analysis : — Celas-
trus scandens, L., with Eemarks on the Colouring Matters of Plants.
Trans. Bot. Soc. Edinb. vi. pp. 362-8.

Eeferring to the histological character of the colouring sub-
stance of the cells of the arillus, which occurs in the form of
minute, elongated, and straight or curved granules of a bright
scarlet colour.

Le Jolis, Aug. — Plantes vasculaires des environs de Cherbourg.
Mem. Soc. Sc. Nat. Cherbourg, viii. pp. 245-360.

An account of the climate and general character of the vege-
tation of the environs of Cherbourg is prefixed to the Catalogue of
Species, — 954 in number, — which are arranged in conformity with
the ' Elore de Erance' of Grenier and Godron.

Line-ley, John. — Descriptions of Coniferae sent from Japan, by J.
G-. Veitch. Gard. Chron. 1861, pp. 22-3.

Livingstone, J. S.— On the Anaesthetic effects of Chloroform, Ether,
and Amylene, on Sensitive Plants. Trans. Brit. Soc. Edinb.
vi. p. 325.

The anaesthetic influence was found always to proceed from
above downwards. The most marked effects were produced by
amylene.

— — Experiments on the Effects of Narcotic and Irritant Gases on
Plants. Trans. Bot. Soc. Edinb. vii. pp. 380-7.

Details are given of the effects of Sulphurous and Hydro-
chloric Acid, Chlorine, Sulphuretted Hydrogen, Nitrous and Car-
bonic Oxide, and Coal Gas, on Laburnum, Balsam, and a Psoralea.
As regards their action on plants, the author distinguishes the two
classes of narcotic and irritant gases. Plants exposed to the
former until the leaves begin to droop, although the colour remains
unchanged, inevitably perish. In irritant gases the action is more
local, affecting first the tips of the leaves, which become disco-

PTTANTrROOAMTA. 375

loured. If the stem be not attacked, the plant recovers when

removed.

Lowe, E. T.— Some Account of the " Chaparro" of Fuerteventura, a
new species of Convolvulus, A. N. H. ser. 3. vi. pp. 153-6.

The ' Chaparro' {Convolvulus Caput- Medusae) is a dwarf, woody,
spinose plant, growing in dense convex masses on the sterile sea-
ward slopes of the western shore of Fuerteventura. The root and
wood are reported to possess a fragrance rendering it commer-
cially valuable : this property Mr. Lowe was unable to confirm.
The plant is, however, readily inflammable, while green or even
growing.

Malt, J. K. — Flora von Deutschland, nach der analytischen Methode.
AVien. 1860, pp. 585.

Mastitis, C. F. Ph. VoN.-Mun. Sitz. 1860. Heft iii. pp. 308-330.

A critical and detailed seriatim examination into the value of the

characters upon which certain genera {Ladenbergia and JRemijia)

have been based, at the expense of the Linnean genus Cinchona.

Herr v. Martius proposes to reunite these.

Maximowicz, C. J. — Nova Grenera Cucurbitacearum. Ann. S. 1ST.
Ser. iv. (Bot.) Tom. xiii. pp. 95-6.

Descriptions of Schizopepon and Mitrosicyos from the author's
' Prhnitia? Flora3 Amurensis.'

Mettexius, G-. — Beitrage zur Anatomie der Cycadeen. Leipsic, I860.

Miciialet, Ettgeke. — Sur la conservation dans le sol des graines de
diverses plantes. Bull. Soc. Botan. Tom. vii. pp. 334-338.

In pools in alluvial deposits bordering the Jura, which, accord-
ing to a custom of the country, are drained at intervals and
cultivated, M. Michalet notes the re-appearance of certain sj^ecies
after the intervals (sometimes extending to 12 or 15 years) of
submergence and exposure. Among the species springing up on
the drained surface, and which are rare or infrequent in the dis-
trict generally, are Carex cyperoides, Scirpus llichelianus, Mumex
maritimus, Potentilla supina, Bidens fasligiata (Michal.).

On the occasion of the construction of a road in which gravel
was employed, brought from a pit excavated in a sterile field,
Galium anglicum, a rare plant near Chaussin (Jura), sprung up
wherever the gravel had been deposited and in the pit from which
it was obtained. This was five years ago, and the Galium has since
disappeared.

Tripolium filiforme, L. (T. micrantJium, Viv.), a plant affecting
the coast and valleys of the large rivers, was found in plenty by
heaps of gravel used for road-making near Dole. As an example
of a species presenting instances of almost instantaneous diffusion,
the author mentions Phelipcea ccerulea, which usually occurs very
sparingly. In 1851 and 1852, it was found in enormous quantity
by the Doubs. The following year none was to be found. The
unwonted abundance of Phelipcea he attributes to the seeds having
vol. i. — n. n. e. 3 c

376 BIBLIOGRAPHY.

been just previously disturbed by the breaking up of the surface
of the pebbly soil for planting ; the same circumstance favouring
the increase of Achillea millefolium, upon which it is parasitic.
Miers, Jon^. — On the Calyceracese. A. N. H. Ser. 3, vi. pp. 174-190,
279-238, 350-356, 396-404.

A general account of the floral structure of the group precedes
the descriptive portion of the Memoir. The tubercle crowning
the ovary in Calyceracese, Mr. Miers regards as an epigynous
disk, adnate more or less with the base of the style within, and
with the corolla- tube outside. The five glandular areola alternat-
ing with the stamens probably appertain to the disk. The genus
Amomocarpus is founded upon seven Chilian species. Fifteen
new species of Calyceracege are described.
Miquel, E. A. "W. — Flora Indiae Batavse. Suppleinentum primum.
Prodromus Florae Sumatrana>, Amsterdam, Van der Post, 1860,
pp. 160. With 2 plates.

With chapters on the geognosy, climate and meteorology of
Sumatra, its cultivated and wild food and economic plants. A
list of species hitherto found in the island is given, with locali-
ties.
Mueller, P. — Notes on the Plants collected during Mr. John M.
Stuart's recent Expedition into the North- west interior of South
Australia. Trans. Phil. Inst. Victoria, iv. pp. 183-8.
Muller, Hermann. — Nachtrage und Bemerkungen zu Karsch's
Phanerogamenflora der Provinz Westfalen. (Mit Beitragen von
Beckhaus und Ascherson.) Bonn. Yerhand, d. N. IT. V. 1860,
pp. 179-198.
Muller, Karl. — Der Pflanzenstaat, oder Entwurf einer Entwicke-

lungsgeschichte des Pflanzenreiches. Leipzig. Eorstner, 1860.
Murray, A.— Notes on Californian Trees. Trans. Bot. Soc. Edinb.

vi. pp. 330-353, 369-370.
Neisler, H. M. — Notes on the Habits of the Common Cane (Arun-
dinaria macrosperma, Mich.) Sillim. Journ. xxx. (1860), pp. 14-
16.
Neubert, W. — Eahigkeit der Pilanzenwurzel feste oder gebundene

Stoffe aufzulosen. Wiirt. Nat. Jahr. xvi. p. 50.
Oliver, Daniel. — On Sycopsis. - Linn. Trans, xxiii. pp. 83-9. With
1 plate.

Bycopsis is a new genus of Hamamelidece near to Distylium,
S. and Z. An account is given of the geographical distribution
of the Hamamelidece, and of the histological character of the wood-
cells of the order.
Philippi, E. A.— Elorula Atacamensis seu Enumeratio plantarum in
itinere per desertum Atacamense observatarum. pp. 62. Tabb.
vi. 4to. Appended to ' Eeise durch die Wiiste Atacama. Halle,
1860.

The new genera described are Stichophyllum, Micropliyes,
Diazia, Silvcea (Portulacea?), Eulychnia (Cactacea?), Eremocharis,

PHANEKOGAMIA. 377

JDomeyJcoa (TJmbellifersB), Urmenetea, CJiondrochilus, Gypotham-
nium, Oxyphyllum, Jobapkes, Bolycladus, Bracliyandra, Vazquezia,
(Composite), Varasia (Gentians), Rhopalostigma, Waddingtonia
(Solanaoete).
Puel, T. — Specimen d'un Catalogue des Plantes vasculaires de Prance.
Bull. Soc. Botan. Tom. vii. pp. 269-273.

Bevue critique de la Flore du Departement du Lot. Bull.

Soc. Botan. Tom. vii pp. 373-5.
Eamokd, A. — Sur le Brassica des falaises de Norinandie, Bull. Soc.

Botan. Tom. vii. pp. 339-312.
Kegel, E. — Beobachtungen ueber Viola epipsila, Ledeb. Moskau,

1860, 4 pp.
Eegel, E. and H. Tiling. —Elorula Ajanensis. Aufzahlung der in
der Umgegend von Ajan wildwachsenden Phanerogamen unci
hoheren Cryptogamen, nebst Beschreibung einiger neuer Arten
unci kritischen Bemerkungen uber verwandte Pllanzen- Arten. —
Nouv. Mem. Soc. Imp. Nat. Moscou. Tom. xi. pp. 1-137.

Ajan is a factory of the Busso- American Company, on the sea
of Ochotsk, 56° 28' N. lat, 138° 29' E. long.

This Elorula is based upon collections made by Dr. Tiling
in the immediate neighbourhood of the factory during the five
years (from 1816-1851) he was stationed there as medical officer.

It was the intention of the late C. A. Meyer to have worked
up these materials in conjunction with Dr. Tiling ; in consequence
of his decease, however, they have been elaborated by M. Eegel.

An introductory essay by Dr. Tiling on the physical features
of Ajan and neighbourhood, is prefixed to the descriptive portion
of the work. The phanerogams of this Elorula belong to 58 Natu-
ral Orders, of which Composite furnishes the largest number of
representatives. Then follow Banunculacea?, Cruciferse, Eosacea?,
and Cyperaceas. The species of these five Orders amount to more
than one-third of the total. Sixteen Orders are represented by
solitary species. The new genera described are Tilingia (Umbel-
liferse, near Cnidiuni) and Kruhsea (Sinilaceae) founded on Smila-
cina streptopoides, Ledb. 351 species are enumerated, includino-
Eerns and Lycopods.
Beixsch, Paul.— Morphologische Mittheilungen (Schluss). TJeber
die dreierlei Arten der Blatter der Sagittaria sagittcefolia, L.
Ueber die Bildung der Triebe an dem stamme der Draba aizoides,
L. Mora, 1860, pp. 710-3.

Morphologische Mittheilungen. Flora, 1S60, pp. 721-726.

"With 1 plate.

1. Notice of the occurrence of Bagus sylvatica, with three coty-
ledons. 2. Elorets formed by the union of two hermaphrodite
ones in the female capitula of Betasites officinalis. 3. An abnormal
example of Cirsium lanceolatum.
Sacks, Julius. — Physiologische Untersuchungen liber die Abhan-

378 EIBLIOGEAPHY.

gigkeit der Keimung von der Temperatur. Pringsheim's Jalir-
biicher fur Wiss. Botanik. Bd. ii. pp. 338-377.

The author's inquiries, conducted chiefly in the winters 1857-8
and 1858-9, were instituted with a view to determine the extremes
of temperature at which the seeds of various species would germi-
nate, the rate of development of the organs as affected by diverse
or constant temperatures, and the effect of a fixed temperature on
the different stages of development of germinating plants. The
results of experiments (upon Maize, Barley, Wheat, Phaseolus
multiflorus, Pea, Bean, Gucurbita JPepo and other species) are
detailed — (1) on the change in the rate of extension of germi-
nating rootlets and ascending organs under like temperatures :
(2) the temperature most favourable to rapid development of
the germ: (3) the minima and maxima at which germination
takes place : and (4) the dependence of ulterior development on
temperature.

A criticism upon A. DeCandolle's theory of the relation of
vegetation to temperature, (Bibl. Geneve, Mars, 1860, and ' Geog.
Bot.' i. 51), and a proposed formula for the expression of the
empirical relation of temperature to vegetation, are added to the
above details.

Savi, Pieteo. — Nota sulla morfologia e micrografia degli organi delle
Cicadacee. II Nuovo Cemento, xii. 1860. Ext. pp. 8.

Schacht, H. — Der Baum. Studien iiber Bau und Leben der hoheren
Gewachse. 2nd edition, 4 plates and 227 wood engravings. 8vo.
Berlin, 1860.

De Maculis in plantarum vasis cellulisque lignosis obviis. An.

Sc. Nat. Bot. xiii. pp. 218-235.

Sciiafenee, Dr. — Zur Entwicklungsgeschichte des Embryos und
Samens von Leucojum vernum. Flora, 1860, 577-582. With
1 plate.

Appendages of delicate membranous texture are described,
developed from the germinal vesicle and projecting beyond the
apex of the embryo sac. They are lost when the embryo is
matured.

Schenk, Peoe. — Ueber Parthenogenesis im Pflanzenreiche. Wiirz.
Nat. Z. Bd. i. pp. 85-9.

The result of experiments, chiefly upon Cannabis saliva and
Mercurialis annua. No female flower, which had been cut oft' from
the access of pollen, perfected fruit.

Sciilechtendal, D. F. L. v. — Nachtrag zur Geschichte der Sonnen-
blume {Heliantlius annuus, L.) Bot. Z. 1860, pp. 349-350.

Abnorme Weizenahren, Bot. Z. 1860, 381-3. _

Sciilotthauber, Dr. — Zunahme der Temperatur in der unteren
Region der Atmosphare, sowie Erklarung und Einfluss dieser
Erscheinung auf die Vegetation. Bonplandia, 1860, pp. 371-3.

ScnoENEEELo, W. — Sur le mode de Vegetation de Y Aldrovanda vesi-

PIIAKEROGAMIA. 370

culosa en hiver et au printcmps. Bull. Soc. Botan. Tom. vii.
pp. 389-391.

The floating hibernal buds of this plant were found to vege-
tate, in cultivation, without first sinking to the bottom, as is
believed usually to be the case in nature.

Scuultz, C. H. (Bipont.) — Ueber die Catanancheen. Bonplandia,
1860, pp. 367-71.

With description, analysis of species, history and distribution
of the group. Piptocephalum, gen. nov. is described.

Sbemajtn", Berthold. — Synopsis Crescentiacearum : an Enumeration
of all the Crescentiaceous Plants at present known. Linn. Trans,
xxiii. pp. 1-22.

With amended character of Creseentiacea?, and diagnoses of
the genera and twenty-six species composing the group. "Dr.
Seemann adopts the Tribes Tanceciece {Calyx persistens, regularise
5-merus) and Crescentiece (Calyx deciduus, irregularis — spathaceus
vel bipartitus). No new genera are founded. Schlegelia and Tripin-
naria are suppressed, being identical with Tancecium and Colea
respectively. Periblema, DC. is excluded from the Order. The
Crescentiaceae chiefly prevail in the islands of East Africa, whence
further additions are probably to be received. Two species occur
in Asia, ten in America.

Sendtner, O. — Die Vegetations- Verhaltnisse des bayerischen Waldes
nach den Grundsatzen der Pflanzengeographie geschildert.
8 plates, 8vo. Munich, 1860.

Sturm, J. W. and A. Schnitzleen-. — Verzeichniss der Phanerogamen
und gefasskryptogamischen Pflanzen in der TJmgegend von
Niirnberg und Erlangen. Ed. ii. Niirnberg, Schmid. 1860.

Tchihatcheff, P. De — Asie mineure. Description physique, sta-
tistique et archeologique de cette conferee. 3e partie. Botanique.
Atlas of 44 plates. Eoy. 8vo. Paris, 1860.

Thwaites, G. H. K. and J. D. Hooker. — Enumeratio Plantaruin
ZeylanisB. Part 3, 1860.

Compositge (Elephantopus) to Labiates (Leucas).
New genera described are Dasyaulus and DicJwpsis (Sapo-
taceee), JDcedalacanthus, T. Anders, and Ptyssiglottis, T. Anders,
(Acanthacese).

Timbal-Lagrave, E. — Essai monographique sur les especes, varietes
et hybrides du genre, Mentha, L., qui sont cultivees ou qui crois-
sent spontanement dans les Pyrenees centrales et dans la partie
superieure du bassin sous-pyreneen"(Haut- Garonne). Bull. Soc.
Botan. Tom. vii. pp. 231-6, 254-261, 328-334, 352-358).

Todaro, Agostino. — Nuovi Generi e nuove Specie di Piante colti-
vate nel real Orto botanico di Palermo. Fasc. 2°. pp. 21-38.
Palermo, 1860. 8vo.

. Bianccea, n. g. (Leguminosa?, sub-order, Casalpiniece), with new
species of Duranta, Hermione, and Oxalis are described.

Trautvetter, E. E. von. — Enumeratio Plantaruin Songaricarum a

380 BIBLIOGRAPHY.

Dr. Alex. Schrenk annis 1840-1843, collectaruni (contmuabitur).
— Mosc. Bull. 1860, pp. 65-162.

Prom Manunculacece to CaryopJiyllacece. Diptycliocarpus, a new
genus of Cruciferse, is described.

Tremeait de Bochebrtj^e, A. et A. Savatier. — Catalogue raisonne
des plantes phanerogaines qui croissent spontanement dans le
departement de la Charente. 8vo. pp. 294. Paris, Bailliere.

Treyirai^tjs, L. C. — Ueber die Prucht yon Chimonanthus, Bot. Z.
1860, p. 337.

At the narrowed extremity of the fruits were formed five re-
flexed organs, which observation of their development showed to
be persistent, elongated and thickened filaments.

Ueber Melampyrum pratense mit gold-gelben Kronen. Bot.

Z. 1860, pp. 337-8.

— — Weitere Bemerkun^en liber monstrose Blatter von Aristo-

locliia macrophylla. With 1 pi. Bon. Yerhand, d. N. H. V. 1860,

pp. 327-330.

With an account of the progressive stages in the development of

abnormal cup- and trough-shaped appendages on the under surface

of the leaves.
Verlot, B. — Voyage de la Societe botanique de Prance a Grenoble

et dans les Hautes-Alpes en 1860. Eev. Hort. I860, pp. 521-

531.

Itinerary, with record of the interesting species collected.
Wagner, Pudole. — Ueber den Oelgehalt einiger forstlicher Samen.

Wiirz. Nat. Z. Bd. 1 pp. 161-2.

Giving the percentage of oil obtained from the seeds of Beech,

Hazel, species of Pinus, &c.
Wartmaists", Elie. — Note relative a 1' influence de froids excessifs sur

les graines. Arch. Sc. Phys. et Nat. Aug. 1860, p. 277.
Walker-Arnott, G-. A. — Note on Hypericum anglicum, A. N. H.

Ser. 3. vi. pp. 362-6.
Watson, H. C. — Part Pirst of a Supplement to the ' Cybele Britan-

nica.' Loud. 1860. (Privately distributed).

Containing two tabulated lists of British plants, showing, to-
gether, the distribution of each species through the subprovincial

areas adopted by Mr. Watson in the 4th vol. of the ' Cybele.' The

subprovinces, 38 in number, are denoted by figures.
Weber, C. O. — Beitrage zur Kenntniss der Pflanzlichen Missbild-

uno-en. With 2 plates. Bonn Yerhand. d. N. H. Y. 1860, pp. 333-

388.
Weddell, M. — Papport sur un Memoire relatif au Cynomoriwn coc-

cineum (Brongniart, Tulasne, and Decaisne, Commissaires). C.

Eend. Aug. 1860.
Welcej5R, H. — Notiz ueber das Ausspritzen des Saffces beim Zerreis-

sen saftio;er Pflanzentheile. Pringsheim's Jahrbiicher, fiir Wiss.

Bot. Bd. ii. pp. 468-9.
Wydler, II. — Kleinere Beitrage zur Kenntiiiss einheimischer Gre-

PHAKEEOGAMTA. 381

wachse (Fortsetzung). Flora, 1860, pp. 517-559 (Compositee) :
593-600 (Campanulaceae, Vaceineae) : 609-617 (Ericine??, Pyro-
leae, Monotropeae) : 625-631 (Ebenacese, Oleacea?, Jasminea?,
Asclepiadere, Apocyneae), 673-685 (Boragineae).

Kleinere Beitrage zur Kenntniss emheimiseher Gewachse.

Berichtigungen uud Zusatze zu der XN. 2-13 dieses Jahrganges.

—Flora. 1860. pp. 753-765.
Zetteestedt, J. E. — Vegetations-skizzer fran Pyreneerna. Overs.

Svensk. Handl. (Stockholm, 1860), pp. 23-51. Sect. 1. Jemfdrelse

mellan Superbagneres ocli Cazaril. ii. Excursion till Venascpie

ocli Castenese. iii. Excursion till Pic du Midi, Marbore ocli

Breche de Eoland.
1. c. pp. 407-121.

Botanisk resa till medlersta Xorges fjelltraker under Sommarren,

1858.

XXXIX. — Cetptogamia.
1. Filicales.

Beegeeotst, G-eoeges. — Sur l'existence de trachees dans les Fougeres.

Bull. Soc. Botan. Jour. vii. pp. 338-9.

M. Bergeron finds unrollable spiral vessels in the bulbils

of Diplazium poliferum, Ccenopteris fcenicula, C. Thalictroides,

Asplenium, proliferum, &c. They also occur in very young loaves

of the first named species. They become eventually replaced by

scalariform, annular or reticulated vessels.
Bolle, Gael. — Zur Vegetationsgeschichte Beschreibung Cultur, &c.

des Asplenium Seelosii. Bonpl. 1861, pp. 18-23.
Beaun, A. — Eevisio Selaginellarum. A. S. IS", xiii.
Ceugee. — Zur Kenntniss der Hyuienophyllaceen von H. Criiger.

Botanische Zeitung, 9 Nov. 1860.

This paper contains some observations, accompanied by figures,

on the fructification of the genera Trichomanes and Hymeno-

phyllum.
Duval-Jouee, J. — Sur une particularite que presente V Equisetum

hiemale, L. Bull. Soc. Botan. Tom. vii. pp. 164-7.

The author's observations were made in the neighbourhood of

* For convenience of reference it is intended to divide the Bibliography of Cryp-
togamic Botany into five portions, viz., Filicales, Muscales, Lichens, Fungi and
Algre. Under the head Filicales will be included works relating to the following
orders, namely, Filices, Ophioglossaceae, Equisetacea?, Marsiieacese and Lycopo-
diaca?. Under " Muscales" will be found the works relating to the orders Ricciaceae,
Marchantiacae, Jungermannise, and Musci. Works on the Gharacese will be placed
under " Algte."

882 BIBLIOGRAPHY.

Strasbourg where this Eqimetum grows very abundantly, and is
collected for market. He finds the toothing of the sheaths to be
very variable, even upon the same stem or upon stems from the
same rhizome.

Eaton, Dan. C. — Filices Wrightianse et Fendlerianse, nempe "Wright-
ianae Cubenses et Fendlerianse Venezuelanse (nonnullis Panamen-
sibus, etc. ex coll. A. Schott et S. Ha}^es interjectis), enumerata?
novseque descripta?. Mem. Ac. Am. Sc. et Ant. 1860. N. B.
vol. viii. pp. 193-220.

Haszltjstsky. — Beitrage zur Kenntniss der Karpathen-Flora. Le-
bermoose. "Wien. Z. B. V. Band x. p. 315.

About 50 species of Eicciaceae, Marchantiacese and Junger-
manniaceae are here given as belonging to the Flora of the dis-
trict, but the author admits that the account is probably incom-
plete. No new species are described.

Juratzea.. — Zur Moosflora Oesterreichs. Vien. Z. B. V. Band x.
pp. 121, 367, 673.

These are three short papers on the mosses of Austria. They
are almost entirely of local interest, but the second contains some
remarks on " Neckera Sendtneriana" of the Bryologia Europsea.
The author has lately discovered the plants in fruit, the occur-
rence of which is very rare. The plant is dioecious, and he de-
scribes its male and female flowers, and gives reasons for retaining
it in the genus Neckera instead of placing it in Omalia, as pro-
posed by Lobarzewski and Schimper.

Lowe, E. J. — Eerns, British and Exotic. Vol. viii. 108 plates. 8vo.
London, 1860.

Moore. — Index Eilicum. Part 10. London. "William Pamplin.

This part contains figures of the following genera : Yittaria,
Lindssea, Schizoloma, Dictyoxyphium, Adiantum, Hewardia, Adi-
antopsis, Cheilanthes, Hypolepis, Cassebeera, Plecosorus and
Onychium.

Kegel, E. — Ueber Earn und deren anzucht aus Sporen. Mitthn.
Euss. Gartenb. Yer. 1860. Heft 2, pp. 97-105.

Eeltstsch, Pall. — Morphologische Mittheilungen. (Schluss).

Weitere Beobachtung des Ueberganges getrennter alterni-
render Wirtel in eine Spiralwindung an einem unfruchtbaren Sten-
gel von Equisetum Telmateia, nebst Bestatigung der in einem
friiheren Aufsatze (Flora, 1858) gegebenen Erklarung dieser
Erscheinung. Flora, I860, pp. 737-740.

2. Muscales.

Helflee. — Untersuchungen iiber die Hypneen Tirol's, von Ludwig
Eitter von Heufler (aus den Yerhandlungen der k. k. Zool. bot.
Gesellschaft in Wien (Jahrgang 1860, Abhandlungen) besonders
abgedruckt.)

Of the 113 European species, 83 are described as Tyrolean,

CRYPTO GAM! A. 383

and the synonymy of cadi species is given. The systematic part
of the work is preceded by some general remarks on the soil, on
the influence of light, warmth, moisture, &c„ on the difference
between North and South Tyrol with regard to the presence of
certain species, on the relation of the Tyrolean Moss-Mora to that
of other countries, and on the probability of the discovery of
further species.
Loeextz. — Beitrage zur Biologie u. Geographie der Laubmoose.
Eine Abhandlung zur Erlangung der philosophischen Doetor-
wiirde ron Paul G-tmther Lorentz. Munchen, 18G0. 4.

This work contains details of the ranges of altitude of upwards
of 300 Mosses observed by the author in Bavaria, the Black
Forest, the Austrian Alps, and in Switzerland, with notices of the
chemical nature of the soil in many localities. The author also
speaks of the changes which different mosses undergo under diffe-
rent circumstances.
Notabis (J. de) Musei Napoani, siye Muscorum ad flumen Napo in
Columbia a clariss. Osculati lectorum recensio. Tur. Mem. xviii.

Appunti per im nuovo censimento delle Epatiche italiane.

Tur. Mem. xviii.
Rabeshobst. — Hepaticae europaeae. Die Lebermoose Europa's
unter Mitwirkg. mehrerer namhafter Botaniker gesammelt u. hrsg.
Decas 13 u. 14. gr. 8. (20 Bl. m. aufgeklebten Pflanzen.) Ebd.
1860, cart.
Eeichabdt. — Ueber das Alten der Laubmoose von Dr. H. W.
Eeichardt. Wien. Z. B. V. Band x. p. 589.

The following is a short account of the contents of this paper.
Botanists acknowledge two methods of determining the age of a
plant. 1st, the anatomical, founded upon peculiarities of struc-
ture, as in the case of annual rings. 2ndly, the morphological,
founded upon the nature of the growth of the plant, especially
the regular succession of certain axes, as in the case of the scars
on the rhizome of Convallaria Polygonatum. The second method
alone is applicable to mosses. The age of a moss is always deter-
minable when there is a regular succession of axes, each of which
has a limited growth lasting for a year ; otherwise there is no
certainty. Therefore the age of the stems of acrocarpous mosses
is determinable, but not that of pleurocarpous mosses.

The author gives five methods of arriving at the age of the
stem of the acrocarpous moss.

1. By observing the number of whorls of branches standing one
above another, a method applicable to most acrocarpous mosses
which grow in thick tufts.

2. By observing the number of capsules. This method is
applicable in cases where the growth of the stem is carried on,
year by year, from axillary buds beneath the terminal fruit, and
where the new stem-growth pushes aside the fruit of the preced-
ing year, and forms an apparent continuation of the principal

vol. i. — isT. ii. b. 3 n

384 EIBLIOGRAPITY.

axis, as may be observed in Bartramia Halleriana Hedw. and in
many Dicrana.

3. By observing the number of shoots, where several are
united together, and form what the author calls a Sympodium.
Some mosses produce horizontal subterranean runners, which
eventually appear above ground, and produce leaves and fruit.
At the point where each runner bends upwards, a bud is deve-
loped in the axil of a leaf. This bud forms a second subterranean
runner, and at last appears above ground like the former one.
This process is repeated yearly, so that by counting the number
of shoots which appear above ground, the age of the moss is ar-
rived at. Minum unduiatum Hedw., Climacium dendroides W.
and M., and Thamnium alopecurum Schpr. may be examined in
this way.

4. This method applies to Polytrichum only, and depends
upon the fact of the growth of the stem in that genus being
carried on through the inflorescence.

5. The 5th method (an uncertain one) is by observation on the
size of the leaves. The early spring leaves are the smallest, and
those produced as the year advances become gradually larger and
larger. "With the following spring the small-sized leaves reappear.
Thus each point of commencement of the small-sized leaves marks
the commencement of a year. In Leucobryum and in many
Dicrana this plan may be used.

In the pleurocarpous mosses, the fruit not being terminal, the
growth of the principal axis is not limited, and it is in most cases
not possible to fix the age of the stem. An exceptional case
exists in Ili/locomium splendens Schpr. where new axes of growth
are formed at regular intervals.

The age of moss stems determined in this manner is found to
vary between 3 and 10 years, but this does not represent the
duration of the whole period of vegetation of a moss. As the moss
grows, the older portions of the stem decay by degrees, and in
order to determine the length of the whole period of vegetation,
it is necessary to examine instances where the decay is arrested.
This may be done in the case of Sphagnum where the old portions
have formed peat, or where, as sometimes happens, the lower
parts of a moss have become incrusted with carbonate of lime.

We have not space to go into the details of the author's re-
marks upon this part of the subject, but he arrives at the con-
clusion that mosses attain an age equal to that of the oldest trees.
Eoze, Ernest, and E. Bescherelle. — Note sur quelques Mousses
rares ou nouvelles, recemment trouvees aux moirons de Paris.
Bull. Soc. Bot. vii. pp. 433-4.

3. Lichens.
Massalongo. — Catagraphia nonnullarum Graphidearum Brasilien-

CRYPTOGAMIA. 385

sum (ex herbario Heufleriano) auctore A. D. B. Massalon^o.
Wien. Z. B. V. Band x. p. 675.

This paper contains a description, accompanied by figures, of
the apothecia and fruit of seven new Lichens from Brasil. The
description is preceded by a short " Conspectus Graph idearum."
Two of the plants described belong to the genus Opegrapha, one
to Pyrrhographa, two to Arthothelium, and one to Thecographa.
The seventh constitutes a new genus, Creographa, allied to Me-
dusula.

Nylakder. — Prodromus expositionis Lichenum Novas Caledonia,
seripsit Wm. Nylander. Ann. des Sc. Naturelles, tome xii. pp.
280-283.

This paper contains an account of a small collection (twenty-
six in number) of Lichens made in New Caledonia, by D. D.
Yieillard and Paucher. Six of the species are European, the rest
Polynesian, Japanese and Australian. The author remarks that
of the species which are found in New Zealand more than half
are European.

Dispositio Psoromatum et Pannariarum, seripsit Wm. Ny-

lander. Ann. des Sc. Naturelles, tome xii. p. 293-295.

The author remarks that,- so far as regards the distinction
between these genera, it is sufficient to say that the thallus of
Psoroma has true gonidia, and that of Pannaria only gonimic
granules, a distinction, he adds, analogous to that which exists
between Nephroma and Nephromium, and Sticta and Stictina.
The author divides Psoroma into two sections, separated by the
nature of the margin of the apothecia, and Pannaria into two
sections, the first having lecanorine, and the second biatorine
apothecia.

De Stictis et Stictinis adnotatio. Eegensburg Elora, 1860,

pp. 65, 66.

Conspectus TJmbilicariarum. Eegensburg Flora, 1860, pp.

-117, 18.
Payod, Y.— Elore de Chamounix. Eamille des Lichens. Bulletin

de la Soc. Vaudoise des Sciences naturelles. Tome vi. p. 421.

An account of the Lichens of Chamounix.
Eabexhorst, L. — Lichenes Europsei exsiccati. Die Elechten Eu-

ropa's unter Mitwirkung mehrerer nahmhafter Botaniker. Gres.

u. herausg. v. Dr. L. Eabenhorst, Ease, xviii. ; Dresden, Druck v.

C. Heinrich. 8vo.

A list of the species published n\this fascicle is given in the

Botanische Zeitung for June 29, 1860.
Cladoniae Europaeae. Die Cladonien Europa's. Unter Mit-

wirkg. mehrerer Ereunde der Botanik gesammelt u. hrsg. Eol.

(12 S. u. 39 Bl. m. aufgeklebten Pnanzen). Ebd. 1860. In Carton.
Senft, Dr. — Die Elechten im Dienste der Natur. Eegensburg Flora,

1860, pp. 193-199.

386 BIBLIOGRAPHY.

SchwexbeneBj S. — Untersuchungen fiber den Elechten- thallus.
Yon Dr. S. Schweiidener. Erster Theil, Die Strauchartigen
Elechten ; mit 7 lithogr. Tafeln. Leipzig, Engelmann, 1860.

The autlior commences with the genus Usnea, describing the
structure of the thallus, the division into medullary and cortical
tissue, the nature of that tissue, the gonidia, the soredia, and the
mode of attachment of the thallus to its support, and adds some
remarks upon the nature of some species or varieties of the
genus. He then treats of some other fruticulose Lichens, viz.,
Bryopogon, Cornicularia, Cetraria, Eamalina, Evernia, Hogenia,
Spharophorus, Eoccella, Thamnolia, Cladonia, Stereocaulon, and
Lichina. The Part concludes with a collection of the genera, and
a description of the plates.
Stenhammeb. — Exsiccater af Svenska Lafrar. Ofvers. Stockholm,
1859.

4. iPungi.

Bail. — Ueber die Myxogasteres Er. (Myxomycetes Walbroth), von
Dr. Tli. Bail, mit einer Tafel. xxi. Yien. Z. B. Y. Band ix. p. 31.
The author observed the process of development of Lycogala
miniatum, JPhysarum columbinum, and JEthalimn septicum, and
arrived at the following conclusions : That the Myxogastres have
no true mycelium ; that the fruit capsules do not consist of a true
membrane, and are not composed of cells, but are formed by the
confluence of sarcode threads, and by the hardening of the muci-
lage ; that the spores are not produced on basidia, or in asci, or
in niother-cells, properly so called ; that the spores, when placed
in water, do not emit germ-filaments, but the primordical utricle
escapes from the ruptured spore in the form of a contractile
ciliated motile organism.

He concludes that De Bary has rightly considered the Myxo-
gastres as belonging to the Bhizopoda.
Baela. — Descriptions et figures de quatre especes de champignons,
par J. B. Barla, de Nice, M. de 1* Acad, de Nat. Cur. Nov. Act.
Yol. xix. (Jenae, 1860).

This paper contains descriptions, accompanied by coloured
plates, of a hew Agaric of the tribe Elammula, two new Boleti,
and a new Clavaria.
Baby, A. de. — Die Mycetozoen. 5 plates. Z. w. Z. x. 1.

Ueber Schwarmsporenbilduug bei einigen Pilzen. Sep. Abdk.

a. d. Ber. Nat. (xes. Ereiburg, 1860.

This paper relates to the discovery by the author of Zoospores
in Eungi. The species to which the observations relate are Cys-
topus candidus, Cystopus cubicus, and Peronospora devastatrix.

A translation of the paper, with illustrative figures, has ap-
peared in the Annales d. Sciences Naturelles.
Bebkeley. — Outlines of British Eungology, containing characters of

CIIYPTOGAMIA. 387

above a thousand species of Fungi, and a complete list of all that
have been described as natives of the British Isles. By the Rev.
M. J. Berkeley, M.A., F.L.S., Author of " Introduction to Oryp-
togamic Botany." London : Lovell Eeeve, 1860.
(This work is noticed, sup. p. 5.)

Bom)eden. — Zur Kenntniss einiger der wichtigsten G-attungen der
Coniomyceten und Cryptoniyceten, von Dr. Bonorden, mit drei
colorirten tafeln. Halle. Schmidt, 1860.

Boussingault.— Observations relatives au developpement des My-
codermes. C. Een. LI. p. 671.

Coemans. — Notice sur le Pilobolus crystallinus ; par Eug. Coemans.
Bull, de l'Acad. Eoy. de Belgique, 2nd Ser. vol. viii. p. 199.

This paper contains observations on the structure and develop-
ment of the vegetative portion of P. crystallinus, as also on the
structure of the sporangium, and of its covering membrane, and
of the cause and mode of its projection from the plant.

Eecherches sur la genese et les metamorphoses de la Peziza

Sclerotiorum Lib., par M. Eugene Coemans, Bull, de l'Acad.
Eoy. de Belgique. 2 ser. vol. ix. 1860, p. 62.

The first state of the fungus (periode nematoide ou sphacelienne)
consists of a system of filaments which produce acrogenous spores.
After a few weeks these filaments become condensed and form a
rounded or irregular mass, and a black epidermis is formed from
the extremities of the filaments. In this state (l'etat sclerotien)
the fungus lives through the winter. In spring the epidermal
cellules swell and become elongated, and produce a rounded stem
which bears a cinnamon-coloured cup. The plant is then in the
perfect state (l'etat pezizoide) and the fungus recognizable as
Peziza Sclerotiorum Lib.

The author describes at length the three different stages
above mentioned. He notices the production during the Sphace-
lioid state of three sorts of spores, viz. small oval spores, large
cylindrical or fusiform spores5 and rounded spores, but no true
spermatia. A section is devoted to the different parasites ob-
served to grow in company with the sphacelia. In the Scle-
rotioid state M. Coemans observed an exudation similar to that
mentioned by Tulasne in Sclerotium Clavus. The author then
describes his experiments with the Sclerotium. He did not
succeed in rearing the Peziza from Sclerotia suspended in bottles,
but those sown in pots, in mould, produced an abundant crop.
M. Coemans entertains no doubt, of the Sclerotium being the
Mycelium of the Peziza, there being, he says, no ground for sus-
pecting parasitism, as in the cases of Agaricus tuberosus and Ag.
stercorarius. The Sclerotia from which the Peziza was produced
varied much in appearance, answering to the forms described as
species under the names varium Pers., compactum D.C. tectum
Ei\, bullatum D.C. and spha?ri?eformis Lib.
Eermond, Ch. — Sur une prolification de Y Agaricus eclulis. Bull.
Soc. Bot. vii. pp. 496-8.

388 BIBLIOGRAPHY.

Fries. — Calendrier des champignons sous la latitude moyenne de la
Suede, par M. Elias Fries, Professeur de Botanique a l'Universite
d'Upsal. Ann. S. N. tome xii. pp. 298-319.

This memoir is a translation of a communication read by M.
Fries to the Academy of Sciences, at Stockholm, on the 13th
May, 1857. It contains, in addition to some introductory re-
marks, an account of the Fungi which appear at different times
of the year, which the author divides into twelve periods : — 1. The
glacial period (mensis glacialis, L.), including January and
February, or the greater part of it. 2. The period of thaw {men-
sis regelationis, L.), from the end of the February to the 15th or
21st of April. 3. The period of sowing, or of the flowering of the
AmentacesB (mensis germinationis, L,). 4. The period of the open-
ing of leaves (mensis frondescenlicE, L.), from the middle of May
to the second week in June. 5. The period of the solstice (mensis
jlorescentice, L.), corresponding to the three latter weeks of the
month of June. 6. Midsummer, comprising the greater part of
the month of July. 7. The period of hay-harvest (mensis matu-
rationis, L.), including the last week of July and the first two
weeks of August. 8. Harvest-time {messis, L.), extending over
the latter half of August and the first eight days of September.

9. The end of summer (L'arriere-ete, Efter sommaren) (mensis
disseminationis, L.), from September 8 to the end of the month.

10. The fall of the leaf (mensis defoliationis, L.), commencing
with the first nights of intense frost, usually at the end of Sep-
tember or the beginning of October. 11. The period of frost
(mensis congelationis, L.), when mild days alternate with frosty
nights, corresponding usually with November. 12. The period
of snow, or the time when snow lies, being usually December.

Hoffmann. — Untersuchungen iiber die Keimung der Pilzsporen von
Hermann Hoffmann. Jahrbiicher fur wissenschaftliche Botanik
Band ii. Heft 3. Berlin, 1880. Hirchswald.

This paper contains figures of the spores of 48 species of
Fungi belonging to different families ; the figures in most cases,
though not in all, exhibiting also the mode of germination of the
spores. In some instances the germinating thread or the con-
tents of the spore were observed to assume a blue colour under
iodine, or iodine and sulphuric acid, and the same reaction was
observed in the asci of Bulgaria inquinans and Peziza vesiculosa.
In speaking of the germination of Hymenogaster Klotzschii Tul.
the author expresses an opinion that the hyaline sac spoken of by
Tulasne as enclosing two spores, is not really a sac but an inver-
sion of a very wide basidium. The second part of the paper con-
tains an account of the author's apparatus and mode of observa-
tion; some general remarks upon the development, structure
and composition of spores, their mode of dispersion and germina-
tion. The effect of light, of different degrees of temperature,
and of various chemical substances upon germination is also dis-

CBT^TOGAMIA. 389

cussed, and the details of a number of observations upon these
points are added.
Hoffmann. — Beitrage zur Entwickelungsgeschichte mid Anatomie

dor Agarieinen von Hermann Hoffmann. Bot. Z. 21 Dec. and
28 Dec. 1860.

■ Mycologische Studien uber die Gahrung, von Hermann

Hoffmann. Botanische Zeitung, 3rd Feb. I860, and 6th Feb. 1860.

Index Mycologicns. Sistens Icones et epecimina sicca

fungorum Europa?orum et exoticorum imprimis nupcr (indc a
publicatione Friesiani systematis mycologici, et quoad species
germanicas — Babemhorstii manualis florae germanicas cryptoga-
micse) edita, ordine alphabetico composita, cum synonymic
Autore Hermann Hoffmann.

This Index is in the form of a supplement to the Botanische
Zeitung, 1860.

Hofmeister. — TJeber die Entwickelung der Sporen von Tuber sati-
vum Yittad. Pringsheim's Jahrb. fur wiss. Bot. vol. 3, pt. 3, 1860.

Maisoxxeeve. — Note sur le Sphoeria militaris, Ehrh. considere
comme parasite de la chenille processionaire du Pin (Bombyx
pityocampa, Fabr.), communiquee au Congres cles delcgues des
societes savantes en Avril, 1S59 ; par M. Durieu de Maisonneuve.
(A pamphlet in 8vo. of eight pages, without date or indication
of its origin, extracted, it would seem, from the proceedings of
the meeting).

In the department of the Grironde, the caterpillar, which de-
vours the leaves of the young shoots of firs, had made such
ravages in the year 1858, that the proprietors were alarmed for
the fate of their woods. This fact was followed by the appear-
ance, in immense quantities, of SpJi. militaris, Ehrh., one of the
club-shaped species of Sphoeria parasitic on the larva? of insects,
and which is remarkable for its golden red colour. M. Durieu
de Maisonneuve, having visited the woods in December, 1858,
observed at once several individuals of this Sphoeria parasitic
upon the caterpillar, which was enclosed in its cocoon, not having
yet passed into its chrysalid condition. In all the other parts of
the woods which he visited, he observed the same Fungus, at-
tached to the same caterpillar, dead, and buried in the ground.
M. Tulasne has observed that the perfect state of Sph. militaris
is much more rare than its secondary or isarioid condition ; and
that this latter is more rare than its primary or byssoid state ;
and inasmuch as the perfect plant "occurred in such quantities
that the ground round the diseased trees was covered with it, the
quantity of caterpillars destroyed by this Sphoeria in all stages of
its growth must (in the author's opinion) have been prodigious.

Muggexberg. —Beitrage zur Pilzkunde von St. Schulzer v. Muggen-
burg. Wien. Z. B. V. Band x. p. 321 and 807.

The first of these two papers contains an account of a new
fungus supposed to be a species of Ditiola, to which the author

390 BIBLIOGRAPHY.

gives the name of Ditiola mucida. He calls attention to the con-
flicting accounts given by mycologists of the fructification of
Ditiola, and inclines to Bail's opinion that the genus is really
ascigerous. The first paper also contains some observations upon
the structure of Dacrymyces stillatus, tending to show that a true
hymenial layer sometimes exists in that plant.

The second paper relates to the Sclerotium of Agaricus tube-
rosus Bull, and to the fungus produced by it. The author con-
siders that the Sclerotium and the Agaric have each a special
individuality, and that they stand to each other in the same
relation as Hydnum auriscalpium does to the fir-cones upon
which it grows. He observes that the Agaric when withered
revives in water, and that therefore it is rather a Marasmius than
a Collybia, notwithstanding the nature of its stem. This latter
paper also contains an account of an Agaric supposed to be a
variety of Agaricus horizontals Bull. It is described at length
and well-figured. It has cinnamon spores, and would belong to
the series Derminus, but its consistence is that of a Marasmius.
This leads the author to suggest that it might be advisable to
extend the genus Marasmius, so as to include all central stemmed
persistent Agaricini, whether the spores be white or coloured.
The writer is in error in supposing that Agaricus horizontalis has
not been observed since the time of Bulliard. It occurs occa-
sionally (although rarely) upon elm-trees in this country. (See

B. and Br. Notices of British Fungi, No. 391, and Berkeley's Out-
lines of Fungology.)

Niessl. — Zweiter Beitrag zur Pilzflora von Nieder-Oesterreich von

G-. v. Niessl. Vien. Z. B. V. Band ix. p. 177.
Pasteur, L. — Recherches sur le mode de nutrition des Mucedinees.

C. rend. LI. p. 709,

Rabekhorst. — Fungi Europsei exsiccati (Klotzschii herbarii vivi my-

cologici continuatio) . Editio nova, series secunda. Centuria ii.

Cura Dr. L. Babenhorst. Dresd. MDCCCLX. Typis Caroli

Heinrich, 4.

The species published in this century are set out in Botanische

Zeitung, 11 Mai, 1860.
Ravekel, H. W.— Fungi Caroliniani exsiccati: Fungi of Carolina

illustrated by natural specimens of the species. Fasc. i. — v.
Richter. — Commentatio de favo ejuscuie fungo. Dissert, inaug.

pathol. bot. quain cons. grat. medicor. ord. in univers. Yiadrina d.

xxiii. m. Junii, etc.,publ. def. auctor Bert'.ioldus Richter, Silesius,

etc. Adjectse sunt tabulae duse lithographicse. Yratislavias typ.

Boehmeri et Minuthii. 8, 63, s.
Tulasne. — De Quelques Spherics fongicoles a propos d'un memoire

de m. Antoine de Bary sur les Nyctalis par MM. Tulasue. Ann.

des Sc. Nat. T. xiii. (Botanique), p. 6. 4 ser.

This paper is noticed at some length in the review of Mr.

Berkeley's work (sup. p. 12). In addition to the matter there

referred to, it contains a monograph of the genus Hypomyces,

CRVPTOGAMT.Y. 391

and some remarks upon the identity of Trichodcrma viride with
Hygocrea nifa, and upon the conidia of Hypocrea delicatula, Tul.
(a new species), and of Cordyceps ophioglossoides, Pers.
Westekdorp. — Sixieme notice sur quelques Cryptogames inedites
ou nouvelle pour la Flore Beige ; par Gr. D. Westendorp. Bul-
letin de l'Academie Eoyale de Belgique. 2 ser. vol vii.

This paper is a continuation of others, which have appeared
in the 12th, 18th, 19th, and 21st vols, of the first series, and in
the 2nd vol. of the 2nd series of the Eeports of the Belgian Aca-
demy. It describes (besides some Mosses and Lichens from Lux-
embourg and Hainault), a number of Pyrenomycetes, including a
new species of Cordyceps, eleven new species of Sphseria, two new
species of Pestalozzia, two new species of Macroplodia ; two new
species of Staurosphseria ; and two new species of Phoma. Some
observations on the nature of ergot will be found at p. 80.

5. Algce.

Archer. — On the occurrence of Zoospores in the family Desmidi-
acese, by William Archer. Natural Hist. Review, and Quarterly
Journal of Science, July, 1860. Quarterly Journal of Microsco-
pical Science, October, I860.

Arnott.— On Cyclotella, by G. A.Walker Arnott. Q. J. M. S.
October, 1860. Vol. viii. p. 244.

Brady, Geo. S. — A Catalogue of the Marine Algae of Northumber-
land and Durham. Tynes. Trans, iv. p. 266.

Brightwell. — On some of the rarer or undescribed species of Dia-
tornaceaa. Part II. By T. Brightwell, F.L.S. Q. J. M. S. Jan.
1860. Vol. viii. p. 93.

Crouan, Freres. — Liste des algues marines decouvertes dans le
Finistere depuis la publication des algues de ce departement en
1852. Bull. Soc. Botan. Tom. vii. pp. 367-373:

■ Notice sur le genre Hapalidium, par MM. Crouan freres,

Pharmaciens. Ann. S. N. Vol. xii. p. 284. 4 ser.

The wish (say the authors) to elucidate the characters of the
genus Hapalidium, of which the fructification has hitherto been
unknown, has induced us to study it ; and we are happy to be
able to rectify the characters of the genus, and to make known
the two kinds of fructification, as well as to publish three new
species.

Genus Hapalidium Kutz. — Phyc. gen. p. 385. Sp. Alg. p.
698. Crouan M. S. char, reform.

Frond calcareous, formed of capillary dichotomous articulate
filaments, or of little lobes or flabelliform disks, fixed horizontally,
and adherent by all their parts ; stratum simple, formed of cel-
lules, arranged in lines radiating towards the periphery, square or
rectangular, furnished in the centre with a rosy nucleus, and sur-
rounded by a cretaceous border, forming a net- work. Ceramidia
not opaque, of two sorts, the one sort enclosing, in the lower part,
a mass of elliptical or pyriform spha?rospores, straight, divided

VOL. I. — S, H. R. 3 E

392 BIBLIOGRAPHY.

transversely into four spores, and fixed to a reticulate placenta ;
the other containing, in the interior, a mass of round spores,
immersed in the middle of a filamentous tissue.
Crouan. — Notice sur quelques especes et genres nouveaux d'algues
marines de la rade de Brest, par MM. Crouan freres, Pharma-
ciens. Ann. S. N. Vol. xii. p. 288. 4 ser.

Vlvella Crouan, (gen. nov.)

Frond green, lentiform, 1-2 mill, in diameter, horizontal, ad-
herent by the whole inferior surface ; formed in the centre of its
surface of round, oval, or angular cells, embedded in a sub-gelati-
nous substance, reticulated, and containing some sporidia in their
interior. Towards the periphery they become ovoid or rec-
tangular, are much smaller, separated from one another, and
disposed in radiant lines, simple or forked at their extremities.
A vertical section of the frond exhibits the central cellules, ar-
ranged in almost perpendicular series, and filled with endochrome.

This genus (the authors say) resembles, at first sight, under
the microscope, the first state of development of the sporidia of
Enteromorpha ; but its uniform size at all seasons of the year, its
structure, and sporidia, point to its being a new genus of the
Ulvacea?.

Cruoriella Crouan (gen. nov.)

Frond horizontal, 1-2 centimetres in diameter, adherent by
the whole of its inferior surface, of a deep purple, having the ap-
pearance of a Peyssonelia, composed of filaments, plunged in and
held together by gelatine; the surface exhibiting the lines of*
the spherical cellules radiating towards the periphery in the form
of a fan. JVematheccd numerous, scattered over the frond, very
slightly prominent, formed of simple articulated filaments,, the
lower joints very large, spherical, or square, then becoming 1£
times as long as broad, and 3-4 times as long as broad at the
summits, which are attenuated, cystocarps immersed in the
middle of the nematoid filaments, at the spot where their diameter
becomes abruptly diminished, bearing round or square spores,
joined end to end, and resembling little heaps, in a simple or cli-
chotomous series, fixed together by gelatine. Sphserospores
oblong, crucial, attached to the summit of a long articulated pe-
dicel, and immersed in the middle of forked and fibrillose filaments
constituting the Nematheca.

This plant, the authors observe, differs in fructification and
structure from all known Squamarias.

Rhododiscus Crouan (gen. nov.)

Frond, 3-8 mill, in diameter, disciform, of a beautiful rose-
carmine, adherent by the whole of its inferior surface, a little
thickened in the centre, which is sometimes lifted up and detached
from its support ; fining off towards the periphery into a very
delicate, fan- shaped, lobed membrane, sometimes laciniated, and
presenting on its surface dichotomous series of ovoid or angular

CRYPTO a AMIA. 393

radiating cellules ; spharospores numerous, internal, obovate,
crucial, occupying the summit of the perpendicular series of cel-
lules.

This plant is classified by the authors in Trib. II. of the Squa-
maria? (J. Ag.), for which they establish a new section.

The above paper contains also descriptions of a new species of
Callithamnion, and a new species of Calothrix. It is accompanied
by 2 plates, containing 41 figures.

Dippel. — Versteinerte algen. Eegensburg Flora, 1SG0, p. 207.

Donkls. — On the marine DiatomaceaD of Northumberland, with a
description of several new species. By Arthur Scott Donkin,
M.D., L.E.C.S. Quart. J. M. S. New series, pt. 1.

Druce. — On the reproductive process in the Confervoidae. By T. C.
Druce, Esq. Q, J. M. S. April, 1860. Yol. viii. p. 71.

Famestzin". — Beitrag zur Kenntniss der Yalonia utricularis von A.
Famintzin. Botanische Zeitung, Oct. 26, 1860.

From the results of his observations, the author draws the
conclusion that the groups of cells of Valonia must be considered,
not as colonies of unicellular individuals, but as multicellular
plants, composed of stem, root, and branch cells. He considers
that Yalonia, in its structure, growth, and mode of junction of its
cells, as well as in the development and structure of its zoospores,
is clearly allied to Cladophora, from which it differs in the want
of apical growth and irregular ramification of its thallus, and par-
ticularly in the fact of each cell (except the root- cells) being
capable of throwing out branches from any point of the surface.

Greville. — On Campylodiscus, &c, by E. K. Greville, L.L.D.,
F.E.S.E., &c. Q. J. M. S. Jan. 1860, vol. viii. p. 29.

■" A monograph of the genus Asterolampra, including Asterom-

phalus and Spatangidium, by E. K. Greville, L.L.D., F.E.S.E.,
&c. Q. J. M. S. April, 1860, vol. viii. p. 102.

Grlxow. — Ueber neue oder ungeniigend gekannte Algen. Erste
Folge Diatomaceen, Familie NavicuLaceen. "VYien. Z. B. Y. Band
x. p. 503.

This paper contains some general introductory remarks upon
the structure of diatoms, followed by a new arrangement of the
order (making eleven families and 73 genera), founded principally
upon the system of Kiitzing. Smith's arrangement is objected
to, as having the effect of separating closely allied genera, and of
breaking up of other genera and even species. The author gives
a detailed account of the family Naviculacc?e, which he arranges
in 13 genera, including a new one, Scoliopleura, formed for the
reception of Navicula Jenneri, convexa and AYestii of Smith, and
of tAvo new species discovered by the writer. The genus is dis-
tinguished from Navicula by the fact of the median line not being
always sigma-shaped, and by the relative position of the valves,
which, when seen from above, do not cover, but cut one another
at an acute angle,

394 BIBLIOGRAPHY.

Harvey. -Index Generum Algarum ; or, a Systematic Catalogue of
tlie Genera of Alga?, Marine and Freshwater, with an alphabetical
key to all the names and synonyms, by W. H. Harvey, M.D.,
E.E.S., &c. London, John van Voorst, 1860.

Dr. "W. H. — Phycologia Australica; or, a History of Aus-
tralian Sea Weeds, 1860. London, L. Keeve. Vol. iii. and iv.
fasc. 31, 32. Tab. cxxi.-cxcii.

Hicks. — On the amoeboid condition of Volvox globator, by J. Brax-
ton Hicks, M.D., Lond,, E.L.S., &c. Q. J. M. S. April, 1860.
Vol. viii. p. 99.

. Contributions to the knowledge of the development of the

gonidia of Lichens in relation to the unicellular Algse, &o, by J.
Braxton Hicks, M.D., Lond., E.L.S., &c. Fasc. I. Q. J. M. S.
October, 1860. Vol. viii. p. 239.

Contributions to the knowledge of the development of the

gonidia of Lichens in relation to the unicellular Alga?. By J.
Braxton Hicks, M.D. Lond., E.L.S. Fasc. II. Quart. J. M. S.
New Series, part I.

Hohenacker, Dr. E. P.— Alga? marina? siccata?. Eine Sammlung
europaischer u. auslandischer Meeralgen in getrockneter Exem-
plaren, mit einem kurzen Texte versehen von Prof. Dr. Kiitzmg.
Achte Lieferung, 50 Arten enthaltend. Herausgegeben von Dr.
E. E. Hohenacker Kirchheim u. T., Konigreich Wurtemberg,
1860, fol.

Johnstoke and Croall. — The nature-printed sea-weeds : a history,
accompanied by figures and dissections, of the Alga? of the
British Isles, by William Grosart Johnstone and Alexander
Croall. Nature-printed, by Henry Bradbury. Vols. 2, 3, 4.
London, Bradbury, 1859-60. Eoy. 8vo. Vol. 2. Ehodospermea?.
Vol. 3. Melanospermea?. Vol. 4. Chlorospermea?.

Karsten.— Berechtigung zu Pringsheim's Nachtrag zur Kritik und
Geschichte der TJntersuchungen ii-ber das Algengeschlecht von
Dr. Hermann Karsten Botanische Zeitiuig, Dec. 14, 1860.

This paper refers to a matter (of opinion) in dispute between
the author and Dr. Pringsheim as to the mode of impregnation in
Vaucheria. The bitterness of feeling which it exhibits, and the
uncourteous manner in which the author speaks of his opponent,
are much to be regretted, and are of a nature rarely to be met
with in a scientific discussion. It is surprising that the editors
of the Botanische Zeitung should have admitted such personalities
into their columns.

Kutzing, Fr. T. — Tabulae phycologicae od. Abbildgn. der Tange.
Vol. x. 100 plates. Eoy. 8vo. Nordh. 1860. col. plates.

Lawson, Geo. — On the structure and development of Botrydium
Granulatum. Ed. Bot. Soc. Trans, vi. 424-431. With 1 PL

Lobb. — On the self-division of Micrasterias denticulata by Mr. Lobb.

Q. J. M. S. New Series, No. 1.
Lowe, John.— On Sarcina ventriculi, Good. Ed. Bot. Soc. Trans,
vi. 371-7.

CRYPTOGAMIA. 395

Luders. — EJnige Bemcrkungcn iiber Diatomeen-Cysten unci Diato-
meen-Schwarmsporen von Joh. E. Luders. Botanische Zeitung,
30 November, 1860.

The author, after referring to the observations of Smith (Bri-
tish Diatomacea?, Vol. 2, p. xv.) and of Hofrneister (Bericht iiber
die Verhandl. der Konigl. Sachs. Gesellschaft der Wissensch. zu
Leipzig, 1S54, i. p. 28), and to the remarks of De Bary in the
Supplement to the Bot. Zeitung for 1858 (p. 62) gives an account
of his own observations upon Synedra radians, Cocconema, and
Gromphonema, which he says show clearly that the cysts are
formed by Amoeba?. He also describes the production of infu-
soria in the cells of Podosphenia Lyngbyei, Achnanthes longipes,
Melosira Borrerii, Amphora ovalis, Gomphonema constricta, acu-
minata and intricata. He considers it probable that these infu-
soria or some allied productions have given rise to the notion of
the existence of zoospores in the Diatomacea?, but adds that he
has never yet succeeded in finding true zoospores in that tribe of
plants.

Norman. — On some undescribed species of Diatomaceae by Greorge
Norman, Esq., of Hull. Quart. Journ. of Mic. Sc. New Series,
Part 1.

Prixgsheim. — Nachtrag zur Kritik und Greschichte der Untersuch-
ungen iiber das Algengeschlecht von N. Pringsheim ; Jahrbiicher
fiir wissenschaftliche Botanik, Band ii. Drittes Heft, p. 470.

This paper relates to the reproductive process in Vaucheria,
and is devoted to a refutation of Dr. Karsten's objections to the
author's published observations on that phenomenon.

Pritchard. — A History of Infusoria, including the Desmidiacea? and
DiatomaceaB, &c. By Andrew Pritchard, M.E.I. Fourth edition,
enlarged and revised by J. T. Arlidge, W. Archer, J. Ealfs, W.
C. Williamson, and the author. 40 plates, pp. 968.

Eabexhorst, Dr. L. — Die Algen Sachsens, resp. Mittel-Europa's.
Unter Mirwirkg. der H. H. Ardissone, de Bary, Bulnheim, etc.
gesammelt u. hrsg. Decade 97-100. gr. 8. (a 10 Bl. m. aufgekleb-
ten Pflanzen u. Alphabet. Verzeichniss 16 S.) Dresden, 1860,
(am Ende.) cart.

Eeixice^;, E. — Die Bewegung der Oscillarien besonders der Spiru-
lina. Beitrage zur neuern Mikroskopie, zweiter Heft. 8vo.
Dresden.

The first part of this paper contains some remarks upon the
movements of the Oscillariae, with reference to the observations
of Adanson, Brown, Saussure, Karsten, Mayer, and d'Alquen ;
but the principal portion is devoted to the author's observations
on the movements of a new species of Spirulina (Spirulina gra-
cillima, Eabenhorst, Algen Sachsens, resp. Mittel-Europas, No.
895). He gives, as the result of his observations, the following
facts : that in this species the spiral is sometimes left- sometimes
right-handed ; that each spiral can revolve on its axi*, either to

396 BIBLIOGRAPHY.

the left or to the right ; that if the direction of the turn of the
spiral and of its revolutions on its axis coincide, the plant moves
forwards ; if the contrary, backwards : that for each revolution
on its axis, the plant progresses or retrogrades to the extent of
one turn of the spiral ; that one revolution lasts generally from
one to five seconds ; that each plant has a revolving pendulum
motion* (Kreispendel-Schwingung), which may take place either
at one end or both ; that one such revolution coincides in time
with one revolution of the plant on its own axis ; that the revolv-
ing pendulum motion may take place either to the left or to the
right ; that the direction of the pendulum motion in left-handed
spirals is always to the left, in right-handed spirals, sometimes to
the left and sometimes to the right.

The second part of the paper is devoted to an inquiry into the
probable causes of the motion, the result of which is summed up"
as follows, viz. : that special causes of motion, such as cilia, &c.
do not exist ; that external influences, such as light, heat, cur-
rents of water, &c. are not the cause ; that the origin of the
motion must be sought for in the plant itself, and stand in some
relation to its vital condition ; that the movements observed in
the higher plants (which are also unexplained) cannot be com-
pared with those of the OscillarisB ; that endosmose affords no
sufficient explanation ; that the resemblance in many respects to
animal motion is undeniable, but that there is no sufficient proof
to establish the animal nature of the alga or of its movements.

Roper, E. C. 8. — On Triceratimn arcticum. Q. J. M. S. vol. viii.
p. 55.

Smith.— -Notes on Diatomacea?, found near Gambia, O. By Professor
Hamilton L. Smith, of Kenyon College, Grambia, O. Q. J. M. S.
vol. viii. p. 33.

Stizeistberger. — Dr. Ludwig Rabenhorst's Algen Sachsens resp.
Mittel-Europa's Decade I — C. Systematisch geordnet (mit Zu-
grundelegung eines neuen Systems) von Dr. Ernst Stizenberger.
Dresden, 1860. Heinrich.

Venture — Beobachtungen iiber die Fructifications- or gane der Elo-
rideen von Dr. Gustav Venturi. Wien. Z. B. Y. Band x. p. 583.
This paper relates to the discovery, by the author, of certain
organs in Wrangelia penicellata, Polysiphonia elongata, and Calli-
thamnion versicolor, which have the appearance of being anthe-
riclia. True spermatozoa have not been seen, although in Cal-
lithamnion versicolor the upper cells of the antheridia contained
minute cellules in which slight movements were observed. Erom
the author's account we suspect this motion was only molecular.

* That is to say, the motion of a pendulum, when the extremity of it can move
in any plane, and is so set in motion as to cause its extremity to describe a circle

or an ellipse.

CRYPTO GAMIA, 397

Figures of the anthcridia in each of the three species accompany
the paper.

"Wallich. — On the development and structure of the Diatom-valve.
By G. C. Wallich, M.D., F.L.S. Q. J. M. S. April, 1860. Vol.
viii. p. 129.

On the Siliceous Organisms of the digestive cavities of the

Salpae, and their relation to the flint nodules of the chalk forma-
tion. By Surgeon G. C. Wallich, M.D., Eetired List H. M.
Indian Army. Q. J. M. S. January, 1860. Vol. viii. p. 36.
Descriptions of Desmidiacea3 from Lower Bengal. A. N. H.

3 ser. v. p. 184.

Weise, J. P. — Les Diatomaces du limon d'Arensbourg de Haspal et
de Staraia-Boussa. Petersb. Mem. I.

West. — Bemarks on some Diatomaceae, new or imperfectly des-
cribed, and a new Desmid. By Tuffen West, F.L.S. Q. J. M. S.
July 1860. Vol. vii. p. 147. <

Bemarks on some new Microscopic Alga3, collected by Tlios.

Atthey. Tynes. Trans, iv. p. 321.

6. Miscellanea of Gryptogamic Botany.

Bertolent. — Mora Italica cryptogarua, Fasc. ii. Bononiae, 1859.
8vo. pp. 129-256. Wien, Sallmayer and Co.

Bischoef. — Allgemeine Uebersicht der Organisation der phaneroga-
men imd kryptogamen Pllanzen. 3911 lithographirte Abbildun-
gen auf 77 Tafeln mit organologischen, systematischen und
Namen-register (Abdruck aus dem Handbuche der botanischer
Terminologie und System-kunde) 2. Abtheilungen. Neue wohl-
feile Ausgabe. Leipsic. Schrag. 4.

1. Phanerogamen-kunde mit 2200 Abbildungen auf 47 Tafeln,
23 pp.

2. Kryptogamen-kunde mit 1712 Abbildungen auf 30 Tafeln,
19 pp.

Breetel. — Flora G-ermanica exsiccata Cryptogamica. Centuria I.
2te Auflage. Pol.

A collection of dried cryptogamic plants, of which this first
century contains 8 species of vascular cryptogams, 8 species of
liverworts, 66 species of mosses (including 10 of Sphagnum), and
18 species and varieties of Algae, chiefly from the Baltic.

Ciccoke. — De la nature des globules ovoides dans les vers a soie, par
M. A. Ciccone.

The author remarks that it is beyond a doubt that the ovoid
corpuscles play an important part in the prevalent malady of silk-
worms, but that it remains to be proved what those corpuscles
are. Are they, he asks, crystals, or psorosperms, or haernatozoids, or
unicellular algae, or panhistophytons, or merely organic elements
of the worm ? The author decides that the globules in question
are organic elements of the silk-worm, and are a modified form of
certain small globules found in the body of th* wo—

398 BIBLIOGRAPHY.

G-ennart, Dr. — Cryptogamae vasculares Ligusticre. Mem. Ace. clt
Torino, 1859.

Glaser. — Blicke in die Cryptogamenwelt der Ostseeprovinzen. 2. Ab-
tlieilung, (Aus den Arckiv fiir die JNatiirkunde Liv.-Ehst-und
Kurland's abgedruckt.) Dorpat, 1859. 8vo. (54 pp.) (Glaser.)

Montagne. — Huitierne centurie de plantes cellulaires nouvelles tant
indigenes qu'exotiques, par Camille Montagne, D. M. Decades
IX et X. Ann. S. N. Tom. xii. pp. 167-192. 4 ser.

This paper contains descriptions of some new Algae, Lichens,
and Fungi, including some vegetable productions, found in the
mineral waters of Gazost, St. Honor e,Valdieri, Ems and Loueche.
The author also calls attention to the mode of growth of the pro-
embryonal filaments of Gymnostomum calcareum, which were
found forming a green velvety layer on the stone-work of a bath.
It will be curious (says the author), to know whether this deve-
lopment is normal or exceptional, or dependent upon locality ;
and especially whether the plant, under such circumstances, would
perfect its development.

Poetsch. — Neue Beitrage zur Kryptogamen- flora Nieder Oester-
reichs, von J. S. Poetsch. Wien. Z. B. V. Band ix. p. 127.

Pokornt.— Beitrag zur Flora des ungarischen Tieflandes von Dr. A.
Pokorny. Wien Z. B. V. Band x. p. 283.

Eabenhorst. — Cryptogamae vasculares Europeae. Die Gefass. Kryp-
togamen Europa's, unter Mitwirkung mehrerer Freunde der
Botanik gesammelt und herausg. v. Dr. L. Babenhorst. Fasc.
III. No. 51-75. Dresden, 1860. Druck v. Heinrich.

The species published in this fascicle are set out in the Bota-
nische Zeitung for July 20, 1860.

THE

NATURAL HISTORY REVIEW

QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF BIOLOGICAL SCIENCE.

tvuws.

XL. — Course of Lectures on the Physiology and Patho-
logy op the Central Neryous System. Delivered at the Eoyal
College of Surgeons of England, in May, 1858, by C. E. Brown-
Sequard,M.D.,E.B.S., &c. &c. London. Williams and Norgate.
8yo. pp. 276, 1860.

( Conclvdedfrom page 287. )

For a considerable time past physiologists have been familiar with
the influence of reflex actions on secretion and nutrition. Since the
publication of Muller's Manual of Physiology, Stilling's Treatise on
Spinal Irritation, and Henle's various works, no treatise on physio-
logy, or general pathology, has appeared which has not fully recog-
nised the reflex phenomena of nutrition and secretion, as something
well known. This makes it the more surprising, that, shortly before
his death, Dr. Marshall Hall announced, as a new discovery, the sup-
posed existence of an excito- secretory and secretory nerve system.
Dr. Campbell of Georgia, U. S., claimed priority of this discovery,
which Marshall Hall in a great measure conceded to him : but the
truth is that neither one nor the other adduced one single fact to
show the existence of any such distinct system of nerves. Admitting
the vast importance of the influence "exercised over secretion and
nutrition by the vaso-motor nervous system, admitting that many
phenomena hitherto inexplicable, find, in the effects produced upon
the blood-vessels by paralysis and excitation, whether direct or reflex,
of this system, a complete explanation ; still the question comes, can
we explain all the phenomena, normal and pathological, showing the
direct or reflex influence of the nervous system on nutrition and
secretion by deduction from the above truths, concerning the

VOL. I. — N. H. R. 3 F

400 REVIEWS.

effects of paralysis or excitation of the sympathetic nerve on blood-
vessels ? We entirely concur with the answer given to this question
by Dr. Brown- Sequard, that facts discovered by Ludwig, by Czermak,
and especially by Claude Bernard, seem to have solved the question
in the most positive manner, and that it seems absolutely certain
that there is some agency of the nervous system, which is not simply
an influence on the constricting muscular fibres of blood vessels, in
the normal, or pathological, phenomena of secretion and nutrition.
Professor Bernard has pointed out, how that, instead of contracting,
the blood-vessels of the salivary glands become enlarged, when certain
nerves are excited. To explain this and other, apparently contra-
dictory, facts, we must seek for some theory embracing a wider gene-
ralization than any hitherto propounded. As we have already said,
the notion of Dr. Brown- Sequard that this enlargement in the blood-
vessels must be due to a greater attraction of the arterial blood by
the tissue of the gland, seems to us a mere change of terms, explain-
ing nothing. Indeed it leaves physiology as regards these pheno-
mena in very much the same position as did Prochaska, whose obser-
vations on " the action of nerves on vessels and their fluids" are both
interesting and instructive.

" Another function of the nerves," says this most acute observer, " consists in a
certain power over the blood-vessels, and specially the capillaries, in virtue of which,
when the nerves are stimulated (?) they excite, in that part in which they are dis-
tributed, a much more copious accumulation of blood than would have taken place
in the normal condition of the circulation. Stahl termed it the tide of the micro-
cosmic sea, or the ebb and flow of the blood — one cause of it is a stimulus of the
nerves. Innumerable phenomena of daily occurrence shew this. Thus a stimulus
to the nerves is the cause why the cheeks, ears and nose become intensely red and
a sense of heat is felt, when exposed to a cold wind in winter. No one is ignorant
how much the stimulus of sinapisms and blisters causes derivation to the stimulated
part ; an acrid smoke, or fine powder, getting into the eyes excites a copious flow
of tears, and the vessels of the conjunctiva, previously invisible, become distended
with blood. The smoke of tobacco or any other acrid aroma, retained in the
mouth, excites a copious flow of saliva, &c. &c. But the same thing happens when
the nerves are excited not direct!// but indirectly through the brain. We know
that the face is suffused with the blush of modesty ; grief causes a copious flow of
tears, congestion of the vessels of the conjunctiva, and redness and swelling of the
whole face. The sight of agreeable food provokes the flow of saliva ; it is not
unusual for some persons to vomit, or be purged, by only seeing a medicine, &c. &c.
])oes not the vis 'nervosa, increased by a stimulus, render the force of attraction of
the fluids circulating through the vessels greater, so that by this means the fluids
are attracted from every side to the centre of stimulation, as occurs, for example,
when scaling wax is gently rubbed on a piece of cloth, and made electrical, and
attracts sand and particles of various kinds."

Modern physiology will hardly be content to answer this ques-
tion in the affirmative ; to us it would seem as unsatisfactory as the
supposition of active dilatation of the blood-vessels. . . . Although
to our mind the solution given to the question, how a reflex action
may produce or stop a secretion, how it may produce an atrophy or
an hypertrophy, an inflammation or some other change in nutrition,
by Dr. Brown- Sequard, is in some respects not more satisfactory than

BROWN- SEQUARD ON THE CENTRAL NERYOU3 SYSTEM. 401

that offered by Prochaska, yet we freely admit that he puts forward his
view remarkably clearly and well. Let him speak for himself : —

" In the preceding Lecture (Lecture ix.) we have said that there are two modes
of action of the nervous system upon the production of the phenomena of nutrition
and secretion. By one of these actions the nervous system determines an increase
in the attraction of blood by the living tissues, and in this case the phenomena are
accompanied by a dilatation of the blood-vessels, while the reverse exists when the
nervous system, instead of acting upon the parenchyma of the tissues, acts upon the
walls of the blood-vessels, and produces a constriction. In the first case, the quan-
tity of blood passing through the part on which the nervous system has acted, is
increased, while in the second case it is diminished ; in the first case the secretions
are increased, in the second diminished. In the first case, nutrition is more active,
and there is a tendency to hypertrophy and an augmentation of the vital properties
of nerves and muscles ; in the second case, nutrition is not active, and there is a
tendency to atrophy, and a diminution of the vital properties of nerves and muscles;
lastly, in the first case, there is an augmentation of temperature, while in the second
there is diminution. There is therefore the most complete difference between these
two nervous influences.

" Let us now employ the knowledge of these two modes of action of the nervous
system, to explain what occurs in some cases of secretory, or nutritive, reflex phe-
nomena. Suppose, for instance, a calculus in one of the ureters : it irritates the
centripetal nerve fibres of this canal, the irritation is transmitted to the spinal cord,
which reflects it upon the muscular coat of the blood-vessels of the two kidneys, and
produces a contraction, in consequence of which there is much less blood passing
through these organs, so that the urinary secretion is stopped or much diminished.
Suppose a worm in the bowels irritating then- centripetal nerve fibres : the irritation
is propagated to the spinal cord, which reflects it upon the roots of the cervical
sympathetic nerve, by which it reaches the blood-vessels of the retina, produces
then- contraction, and, as a consequence of this cause of diminution in the amount of
blood, an amaurosis. If instead of the reflex action on the blood-vessels, there is
an action on the tissues, as in the case of the experiments of Czermak and of Prof.
Bernard, the blood-vessels dilate and more blood passes through them. The
cornea, for instance, is irritated : its centripetal nerve fibres transmit the irritation
to the pons varolii, which reflects it upon the retina, the lachrymal gland, the con-
junctiva, &c, more blood is attracted by all these parts, their blood-vessels dilate,
and the consequences of a greater amount of blood become manifest — increase of
tears, photophobia, &c.

" The two kinds of effects produced by the nervous system on nutrition and
secretion, may co-exist or follow each other, and we have instances of such a com-
bination or alternation in cases of neuralgia, of worms, &c."

Whatsoever physical explanation may be adopted for the many
interesting facts concerning the sympathy existing between remote
parts of the body, it will be admitted that the subject is one of
amazing importance, and considering its importance, it is surprising
that so little has been done by physiologists and practitioners to
develop its manifold relations in health as well as in disease.
Although more than once regretting that his space does not allow
him "to enter in greater developments" on this subject, Dr. Brown -
Sequard deals with it at considerable length, and in some respects
treats it with great originality. In speaking of the morbid changes
in the nutrition of the brain, of the spinal cord, and of the organs of
sense, produced by an irritation of some centripetal nerve, he shows
that insanity, epilepsy, chorea, catalepsy, extasis, hydrophobia, hysteric
and other varieties of nervous complaints, may be the result of a

402 EEYIEWS.

simple, often slightly felt irritation of some centripetal nerve. He
brings what we conceive to be very ingenious and, at the same time,
valid, arguments in support of his novel view, that it is, occasionally,
by a reflex action of one part of the cerebro-spinal axis on another
part of itself, through the nerves going to the blood-vessels, that
irritation of one portion of the nervous centre acts in modifying, or
altering, the nutrition of another portion of itself. In this way he
offers an explanation of the attacks of epilepsy and epileptiform
seizures, resulting from organic lesion of the nervous centres.

The researches of Dr. Brown- Sequard concerning the etiology
and nature of epilepsy are known to all the world, while his production
of artificial epileptiform attacks in animals as the result of lesion of the
spinal cord, and the very remarkable discovery that the offspring of
animals thus rendered epileptic frequently acquire, by hereditary de-
scent, the same affection, are facts no less interesting to the naturalist
than to the physiologist. But this subject which, with that of rotatory
convulsions, is discussed in his two final lectures, it is not our inten-
tion to enter upon : we shall content ourselves with observing that
they are lectures of great practical value, and show, in every line, the
extraordinary importance of studying, in all their varied aspects and
complex forms, the phenomena of reflex excitability. In reviewing
the principal of such phenomena, we cannot but admit that the best
physical explanation of them hitherto given, seems to be that through
the action of the vaso-motor nerves on the blood-vessels of the
nervous centres. Donders and his pupil Van der Beke Callenfels,
have shown the influence of these nerves directly on the vessels of the
pia mater ; and the experiments of Eussmaul and Tenner, although
coming from a different direction, are strongly confirmatory of
Brown-Sequard's views, and seem to those able experimenters to
justify them in asserting " that epileptic convulsions can be brought
about by contraction of the blood-vessels induced by the vaso-motor
nerves." A great number of observers have, of late, added new facts to
the physiology of the vaso-motor nervous system. But can we regard
the characteristic phenomena of epilepsy, or the still more subtle
forms of disease met with in insanity, vertigo, hallucinations, &c. as
entirely explicable by any such physical changes ? Must we not at
least still recognise the humoral views of Todd and such notions
as have been put forward by the original and ingenious Dr.
C. B. Badcliffe, as having their element of truth as a " vera causa"
in some cases? When we see a large snake struck across the tail
with a rod, and instantly, in the twinkling of an eye, seized with a
paralysis as complete as death, which yet, after a time, passes off again,
can we attribute such a condition to the constriction of the blood-
vessels of the cerebro-spinal axis ? We think not, because we know
that among these animals, the cerebro-spinal system does not (even
after the evacuation of the blood of the body) speedily cease to exercise
certain functions, and perform movements : and, moreover, we have
proved experimentally, that even after decapitation, a blow across

BEOWN-SEQTTARD ON THE CENTEAL NERVOUS SYSTEM. 403

the tail stops for a while all the movements which, under ordinary
circumstances, persist for a considerable time. The effect, therefore,
cannot be attributed to disturbance through the blood-vessels ; it
appears rather to be due to an altered molecular condition of the
nervous centres resulting from the blow, and more or less persistent.
We have heard a well known and very accomplished physician ob-
serve that he believes in an " immaterial pathology." No doubt the
term pathology implies the notion of some change of structure
recognisable by the senses, and hence the phrase " immaterial pa-
thology" is a contradiction in terms : it nevertheless, to our mind,
conveys the idea intended ; it seems to us to imply that, in many
diseases (and we would specify particularly those of the nervous
system where peculiar psychical conditions are accompanied by
spasm, as in the " Tanzwuth," chorea, hysteria, " Revivals," &o.)
symptoms may arise, from changes in the molecular arrangement, or
from altered polarity of the nervous centres, or of the nerves them-
selves, and which are so far material changes ; while they must be re-
garded as immaterial, in so far as such changes must be for ever and
completely beyond the range of the perception of the human senses.
That a shock conveyed to the central nervous system through its peri-
pheral nerves, should, with the instantaneousness of a lightning flash,
lock in insensibility and motionlessness the entire frame of the crea-
ture, cannot, to our satisfaction, be accounted for through the action
of the vaso-motor trunks upon the blood-vessels, any more than the
opposite class of phenomena detailed in the following case : — -

" Case 44. On rising in the morning, a lad 14 years old was heard by his father
making a great disturbance in his bed-room, who, rushing in to know the cause,
found his son in his shirt, violently agitated, speaking incoherently, and breaking to
pieces the furniture. Mr. — ^ caught the lad in his arms and threw him back°on
the bed, when he at once became composed, but did not seem conscious of the mis-
chief he had done. He said that on getting out of bed he had felt something odd,
but that he was very well and thought that he might have had a frightful dream,
although he could not recollect it. I was immediately sent for, and the lad ordered
to remain in bed until I had seen him. About five hours after I found the lad lying
in bed, reading some amusing book ; his tongue clean, pulse regular, countenance
calm and cheerful. He said he was quite well and wished to get up, but that his
father had ordered him to remain in bed until I had seen him. I was informed be-
fore I went up to his bed-room, that the lad had never before been heard to com-
plain of disturbed dreams, or walked in his sleep, or exhibited any epileptic symp-
toms, and that his general health had been good and all his functions regular,
rinding the patient free from any apparent disease and that he had eaten with good
appetite, and no disturbance, his usual breakfast, I desired him to get up. When
sitting up in his bed he drew on his stockings ; but on putting his feet on the floor
and standing up, his countenance instantly changed, the jaw became violently con-
vulsed, and he was about to rush forward when I seized and pushed him back on
his bed. He was at once calm, but looked surprised and asked what was the matter
with him. He assured me that he had felt no pain, had slept well, but that he felt
odd when he stood up. I found that he had been fishing on the preceding day and
having entangled his hue had taken off his shoes and stockings and waded into the
river to disengage it ; but he said he had not cut his feet or met with any other ac-
cident. To ascertain this point I made him draw off his stockings and examined
his legs minutely. Not the slightest scratch or injury could be seen ; but on hold-
ing up the right great toe with my finger and thumb to examine the sole of that

404 BEYIEWS.

foot, the leg was drawn up and the muscles of the jaws were suddenly convulsed,
and on releasing the toe these effects instantly ceased. I then closely inspected the
toe. The nail was perfect ; there was not the least swelling or redness in the sur-
rounding parts, nor any tenderness or uneasiness felt when I compressed the toe
laterally, or moved it, held thus, in any direction ; but on the bulb of the toe nearly
at the point where the circumgyrations of the cuticle centre, there was a very small
elevation, as if a bit of gravel less than the head of a small pin had been there
pressed in beneath the cuticle. There was not the least redness on this spot nor
any sensation or effect produced by passing my finger over its surface ; but on com-
pressing it with my finger and thumb against the nail very cautiously, a slight con-
vulsion instantly ensued, I asked the patient if anything pricked him ? He said
" No, but something made him feel very odd." On examining this part well with
a pocket lens, no scratch or puncture of the cuticle could be discovered. I then
with a pair of scissors included and snipped away the slightly elevated part, but not
so deeply as to denude the cutis beneath. In the bit of cuticle thus removed I ex-
pected to find some point of a thorn or particle of sand, but could not detect any-
thing of the kind. I then pressed the toe in every direction ; the strange sensation
was gone and never returned. I do not know that any member of patient's family
had ever been under treatment for insanity, but two of his uncles, and I believe an
aunt, were suicides, and the patient himself many years afterwards was " found
drowned " by the cautious verdict of an inquest."

Every physician lias probably from time to time met with kindred,
although much less remarkable cases, resulting from reflex irritation ;
we have ourselves, more than once, seen cases of hiccup, which had
for several days, resisted all the ordinary remedies, stopped at once
and permanently, by making an incision for the evacuation of a
small quantity of pus from the sole of the foot ; we have also wit-
nessed an instance in which a patient suffering from erysipelas in the
lower limb, was suddenly, at midnight, seized with violent, maniacal
delirium, shouting so as to disturb the neighbourhood, and plunging
and kicking so as to be with difficulty restrained. An incision made
along the side of the tibia, of which the patient was apparently uncon~
scious, gave exit to some grumous pus ; instantly the sufferer became
composed, and in less than half an hour was sleeping soundly ; the
delirium did not return. But the question is, how are such reflex
phenomena to be accounted for ? does not the contemplation of the
theories now generally adopted as to the forces acting in the inorga-
nic world, induce us to suppose that, in the living organism, analogous
molecular changes, altogether independent of the blood-vessels, may
give rise to many of the phenomena in question ? In such cases, we
confess, that analogy is an unsafe guide, but, on the other hand, it
is difficult, if not impossible, not to be led some little way by it.

In an appendix, which forms a goodly portion of the volume,
Dr. Brown- Sequard considers the objections to the opinions which
he has advanced, and upon whose full discussion he had not been
willing to enter in the lectures themselves ; while in a subsequent
portion of the same, he deals with the application of some of the
facts and views expounded in his lectures, to the treatment of
disease. Of the latter portion it is not our duty here to speak ; and
to the former it is in a great degree unnecessary to advert, in as
much as the " examination of objections" contained in it has for along

BROWN- SEQTT ART) ON THE CENTRAL NERYOTTS SYSTEM. 405

time been before the scientific public, in Dr. Brown-Sequard's " Ex-
perimental and Clinical Kesearches on the Physiology and Pathology
of the Spinal Cord," published in 1855.

In a notice like the present, it would be quite impossible to
deal with the many secondary questions which are touched upon in
Dr. Brown-Sequard's eminently suggestive work. There are, how-
ever, two of these which we cannot refrain from mentioning : 1st,
as to the muscular sense, i. e. the appreciation of the feeling which
accompanies muscular contraction, and which, in its exaggerated con-
dition, constitutes the excruciating suffering which attends cramp
and various muscular spasms ; and 2ndly, as to the hyperesthesia
which follows the section of a lateral half of the spinal cord in the
posterior limb, on the same side as the lesion.

Magendie discovered, in 1839, that irritation of the anterior or
motor roots of the spinal nerves causes pain, and further, that when
these roots are divided, irritation of the distal extremity only gives
pain ; while if the posterior roots of the corresponding spinal nerves
be next cut across, pain no longer results from the irritation just
mentioned. On these facts Magendie founded his hypothesis of re-
current sensibility. Now what may be the cause of the pain result-
ing from an irritation propagated, thus centrifugally along a motor,
and then centripetally along a sensitive nerve ? To this question
Dr. Brown- Sequard gives a most ingenious answer. Although
Matteucci and Dubois Eeymond differ as to the explanation of the
phenomena, yet all agree that if a so-called rheoscopic frog's leg be pre-
pared and laid on an insulating plate, and a second leg be laid across
it, so that the nerve alone of the second is in contact with the muscles
of the first, a contraction produced in the first leg, by galvanic or other
stimulus, is followed by a secondary (or induced ?) contraction in the
second, and so for three or four limbs under favourable circumstances.
This is due to some change in the galvanic state of the muscle,
which by its contraction thus excites the nerve lying on it. Now
Dr. Brown-Sequard supposes that this change in the galvanic state
of a muscle is, in the natural condition, perceived by the sensitive
nerves of the muscle ; and the delicate perception of this galvanic
change accompanying muscular contraction, however slight, gives to
us a correspondingly delicate appreciation of the feeling of weight,
which is one of the most striking phases of the so-called " muscular
sense." The more violent the contraction, the more marked is the
disturbance of the galvanic equilibrium, and consequently the more
distinct and strong the impression conveyed to the central nervous
system. Normally these contractions are unaccompanied by pain, but
if the muscular contraction be very violent, or if the centripetal
nerves of muscle be in a hypersesthetic condition, pain results, and
hence that accompanying spasm and cramp. In support of this
view Dr. Brown- Sequard gives the following experiment :

11 If we fix a thread to the tendon of a muscle of a frog and attach to this
thread a weight, capable of entirely preventing the contraction of the muscle,

406 REVIEWS.

Avhicli is fixed by its other extremity, we find that every time the muscle tends to
contract, there is an excitation of the nerve lying upon it, and a contraction of the
muscle to which this nerve is distributed. Hence it is not necessary for muscle to
contract in order to produce in nerves in contact with it a galvanic excitation. I
repeat that it is sufficient that they tend to contract. Now I have found that the
greater is the resistance to the contraction of the muscle the greater is the galvanic
excitation that it gives to nerves in contact with its tissue. On the contrary, if there
is no resistance at all, as already shewn by Prof. Matteucci, after the. section of the
tendon, then the galvanic excitation of the nerves in contact with the contracting
muscle no longer exists."

In this manner Dr. Brown- Sequard attempts to explain, with what,
as we have already said, appears to us singular ingenuity, the pain
accompanying contracted muscles, cramps, spasms, contraction of the
uterus, &c. &c.

What is to be considered as the true cause of the increase of sen-
sibility which follows a division of a lateral half of the spinal marrow,
and is observed to take place on the same side as the lesion ? Hy-
peresthesia (or at least such augmentation of sensibility as we can
discover in animals by pricking, pinching, &c.) seems to result from
two distinct conditions, viz. increased vascularity of the surface, and
also increased vascularity of portions of the cerebro- spinal centres.
Of the first we have a familiar example, in the great sensitiveness of
a portion of the skin irritated by the application of a sinapism ; the
peripheral expansions of the nerves seem to become, in consequence
of the greater supply of blood, more acutely sensitive to impressions
made upon them, to undergo, in fact, an exaltation of function. Of
the second we have an illustration in the increased sensibility, which
forms so striking a symptom of the early stages of cerebro-spinal
meningitis ; in this case, the increased vascularity of the central
nervous system is accompanied by an increase of sensibility of the
surface. We know that when the sympathetic nerve is divided in
the neck of a rabbit, the ear, on the same side, becomes warmer, more
vascular, and more sensitive than the other, and that the same conse-
quences are met with, on the same side as the section, in the posterior
limb, after division of a lateral half of the spinal cord. We are
therefore, at first, naturally led to suppose that in each experiment
the vaso-motor nerve fibres being divided, and the blood-vessels
paralysed, the increased vascularity consequent upon this gives rise
to the increase of sensibility. An exceedingly interesting experi-
ment of Dr. Brown- Sequard' s proves that in the latter instance, at
all events, there is another cause for the hyperesthesia to be sought
for. In his paper entitled " Experimental Researches on various
questions concerning Sensibility," read before the Royal Society in
May, 1860, he says that in a rabbit, all the parts of one of whose
hind limbs were amputated, except the nerves, and in which the
toes are, after a time, about losing their sensibility, in consequence of
all circulation of blood being at an end in the limb, there is never-
theless a rapid and very notable return of sensibility on dividing the
posterior columns of the spinal cord in the dorsal region. It is ob-

MEMOERE SUE LA TBIJJU DES UYSTERTN&ES. 407

vious that this return of sensibility cannot be due to any cause con-
nected with the vessels of the partially amputated limb ; we must
attribute it rather to the increased vascularity of the spinal cord,
which must more or less extensively result from the injury done to
it. So also it would appear that, after division of a lateral half of the
spinal cord, the increased vascularity which unavoidably attends such
an experiment may be, in some degree, a cause of the hyperesthesia
already alluded to in a previous part of this article.

In concluding the present imperfect notice of Dr. Brown-Sequard's
work, we wish merely to add that we have perused it with the greatest
possible pleasure ; and that wherever we have ventured to differ from
the learned author, we have tried to do so with all the respect due to
a man who has devoted much of his life to the successful investigation
of the truths of natural science, and who has, with extraordinary
industry and ability, sought to solve some of the most difficult
problems in Physiology,

XLI. — Memoiee sue la teibu des Hysteeenees de la. eamille
des Hypoxyl£es (Pyeenomycetes), par M. le Pasteur Duby,
Docteur-es-Sciences. Geneve, Jules-Gine. Pick, 1861.

This Memoir, now published separately, first appeared in the " Me-
moires de la Societe de Physique et d'Histoire naturelle de Geneve."
(Tome XYI.) It will be of great service to Mycologists, relating as
it does to a subject upon which a monograph was much wanted.
Monsieur Duby has for some time been occupied in preparing a
wTork on the Hypoxyleae, or Pyrenomycetes, as Pries terms them, and
the present account of one of the most important tribes of that family
is published, by way of Proclromus to the larger work.

After a few introductory remarks, the author divides his work
into four sections. The first contains some general observations on
the family of the Pyrenomycetes, and especially on the tribe of the
Hysterinea?. The second section relates to the particular characters
of the Hysterinese and the relative value of such characters. The
third section contains a systematic exposition of genera and species,
and the fourth, some remarks on the application to the family of the
Hypoxylea3 of the principles laid down in the previous part of the
work.

The position of the Hysterinea? amongst the Pungi has given rise
to some difference of opinion. Pries in the " Systema Mycologicum"
placed them in the Pyrenomycetes, but in his later, work, the
" Summa Yegetabilium Scandinavia," he has transferred the greater
portion of the tribe to the neighbourhood of the Pezizas in the Dis-
comycetes. He retains, however, LopJiiicm, Actidium, and Gstropa
amongst the Pyrenomycetes, mainly upon the grounds that in these
three genera the perithecia never open, and that the spores only
vol. i. — N. h. e. 3 a

40S KEVIEWS.

escape by rupture of the walls, which he considers to be more fragile
in these genera than in other Hysterineae. Mons. Duby contends
that this classification is founded upon a double error. He remarks
that in Lophium the walls are not more fragile than in many of the
Hysteria ; upon this point we think he is quite correct, and that the
same remark might be extended to Actidium. He adds that in
Ostropa the walls are more persistent than in most plants of the
tribe.

The question as to the escape of the spores is one which can only
be determined by a careful examination of specimens in a Hying
state. Mons. Duby alleges that the lips of the perithecia in the
genera in question, although closed when dry, open when the plant
becomes moist, and that the spores escape through the fissure. This
would certainly be more in accordance with what might be expected
from our knowledge of the process in closely allied species : at the
same time, the great authority of Fries, especially in observations
upon living Fungi, would lead one to suspend judgment in the
matter, with a suspicion, however, that Mons. Duby will prove to be
in the right.

Mycologists in general will probably concur with Mons. Duby in
keeping the Hysterineae apart from the Pezizas, for which he gives,
as it seems to us, sound and sufficient reasons. The absence of
gonidia affords a strong, if not a conclusive argument in favour of
separating them from the Lichens ; a separation which could not, we
think, be justified upon the other grounds brought forward by the
author, viz. the absence of a thallus, the structure of the paraphyses
and of the hymenium, and the insensibility of the latter to the
action of iodine. With regard to the last point especially, so many
fungi are now known* in which the test of iodine discloses the ex-
istence of starch, that the presence of this substance can no longer
be looked upon as a mark of distinction between Lichens and Fungi.

Mons. Duby divides the Hysterineae into two sections, Lophieas
and Hysterieae, the former having the perithecia more or less erect,
the latter having the perithecia horizontal. Each of these sections
is divided into two sub- sections, according to a difference in the
nature of the asci. We are not aware that this difference has been
previously noticed, and we therefore translate the author's account
of it. He says —

" The asci of the Hysterinese are constructed upon two totally different systems.
Those of the one system are true sacs, enclosing 8 spores (exceptionally 4 or 6 only)
of different forms, varying from ovoid-globular to cylindrico-linear. Those of the
other system, which at first resemble the former, excepting that they are cylindrical
and much more elongated, are in reality composed of 8 hyaline filiform spores, con-
taining a number of little globules or sporules. When ripe, the spores separate at

* See Ann. d. Sc. nat. Ser. IV., Vol. 3, p. 148. Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London, 1858, p. 119. Pringsheim's Jahrbucher fur wiss. Bot. Vol. ii.
p. 275, et seq.

MEMOIRE STTR LA TRIBTJ DES HTSTERINEES. 409

their upper ends, and b?come detached, more or less, completely from one another,
being often entirely bent backwards or twisted in different directions. They arc

so like paraphyscs that their true nature has often been mistaken I

thought at first that these spores must, before their separation, be united by a mem-
brane, but, although I have used different microscopes, different magnifying powers,
different sorts of light, and different chemical tests, I have never succeeded in dis-
covering the slightest trace of an enveloping membrane. The Hysterinca;, there-
fore, have two very different sorts of asci, viz. dehiscent asci (those formed by long
spores which become detached from one another), and closed asci (those which con-
tain spores of different sorts within a closed membrane)."

INow upon this we would remark that a consolidation of 8 filiform
spores without an enveloping membrane cannot with any accuracy-
be called an ascus ; if (as Mons. Duby is convinced) no membrane be
present, the fructification would be somewhat analogous to the
bunches of spores borne on the lips of the paraphyses of Patellaria,
and must, we think, be looked upon as basidiosporous or stylo-
sporous, and not as ascigerous. This would not interfere with
Mons. Duby's classification, but would only necessitate a change in
definitions.

In the third section of his Memoir, which contains, as we have
said, a systematic exposition of genera and species, two substantial
new genera are proposed. There is a third, " Aporia" which, how-
ever, is only a refuge for some plants of uncertain affinity, and which
is designated by the author as " anomalum et ambiguum." Of the
two others Ostreichnion is founded upon Lophium iinguiculatum of
Wallroth, and will probably be adopted. The other, Mytilinidion,
represents Hysterium aggregatum of De Candolle, and differs some-
what from Ostreichnion in the shape of the perithecium, and mate-
rially so in the spores.

The fourth and last section contains some useful observations on
the value of the stroma and of the form of the spores for purposes of
classification in the ITypoxylese generally. With most of these ob-
servations we entirely concur, but we entertain great doubt as to the
character of dehiscence ascribed by the author to the fruit of Sph.
acuminata, rubella, and disseminans. We have not had an opportu-
nity of examining the latter species, but with regard to the two
former we have never had any doubt as to the existence of an en-
veloping membrane, or true ascus, and if this be so, Mons. Duby's
principle of classification would not be applicable.

410 EEVIEWS.

XLII. — Blackwall' s Spldeks op GtvEAt Beitae^ and Ieelaot?,
Published by the Bay Society.

All naturalists must feel much indebted to the Eay Society, and to
Mr. Blackball more especially, for the publication of this volume.
It must, we think, be admitted that Insects, particularly the Coleop-
tera and Lepidoptera, have of late years nearly monopolized the
attention of Entomologists ; and even Mr. Stainton might see with-
out jealousy some part of the " collecting power" of this country
diverted from the Microlepidoptera, and " turned on" to the other
groups of Annulosa. Owing to the enormous variety of insects, the
entomologist is always in danger of merging the philosopher in the
collector, and of devoting to particular groups the labours which
would produce a richer harvest if spread over a wider field.

Partly perhaps for this reason, entomologists are a class too much
separated from and too little appreciated by their fellow naturalists.
Their delight is to wander, net in hand, in the woods and fields, collect-
ing specimens and watching the habits of their favourite insects. To
do this successfully, it is necessary to know by sight and name a great
many species, and this is done to a wonderful extent. But any
group in which the species are difficult to name and to preserve, is
almost certain to be neglected,

This has been hitherto the case with the Spiders ; but, as far at
least as Mr. Blackwall's work goes, the former difficulty is now
much diminished, copious descriptions being given, with excellent
coloured* figures of almost every species.

"We hope, therefore, that the appearance of this work will stimu-
late our naturalists to cultivate the field thus thrown open to them.f
How much there is to be done may be judged of from the fact, that
though Mr. Blackwall is careful to record the names of those who
have captured specimens of any rare species, he only mentions four-
teen persons, three of whom are ladies. Moreover, of these fourteen,
five appear only once. Mr. Blackwall himself, Mr. Cambridge, Mr.
Clark, Mr. Meade and Mr. Hardy have indeed been indefatigable, but
so few labourers could do but slight justice to such a plentiful har-
vest. The art of collecting insects is brought to a high pitch of
perfection ; and Mr. Stainton's list in the Entomologist's Annual
informs us that there are more than 1400 entomologists in the king-
dom. By far the greater number are ardent collectors, as may be
shown by the collateral evidence that a penny weekly paper, the
" Entomologist's Intelligencer," which circulates entirely among in-
sect collectors, has more than 600 subscribers. Yet not a month
passes without adding some new insect to our lists ; and we may

* Mr. Blackwall most liberally defrayed half the charge of the colouring, which
was all done by hand, and was therefore a considerable expense.

f In Carus's recent " Bibliotheca Zoologica," twenty pages suffice for the Arach-
nida, while the Insecta occupy more than two hundred.

BLACKWALL's SPIDEES OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 411

therefore fairly conclude that the present catalogue of British Spiders
must be very incomplete.

Mr. BlackwalTs present volume comprises seven families: the
Mygaiidse, Lycosida?, Salticidae, Thomisida?, Drassidae, Cinifionidae and
Agelenidse, comprising twenty genera. The author, however, gives no
complete family characters, and the generic descriptions, in which he
generally follows Walckenaer and other authorities, are far from being
satisfactory. It would have been a great boon to anatomists if Mr.
Blackwall had given a tabular arrangement of the genera, like those
in the Histoire Naturelle des Crustaces. This Ave will attempt in
some measure to supply ; taking Mr. BlackwalTs own words, and
treating his last five families as one great group.

Eight genera, named Lycosa, Hecaerge, Dolomedes, Sphasus,
jEresus, Salticus, Textrix and Cceletes have the eyes unequal ; and
four, Lycosa, Sphasus, Eresus and Salticus may be recognised by the
relative position of these organs ; though we may observe that in
the several figures of Lycosce the posterior row is made too large, and
that this is the case even in the enlarged figure, specially intended to
show the arrangement characteristic of the genus. In Hecaerge,
Dolomedes, Textrix and Coelotes the eyes are in two rows, both of
which are straight in Coelotes, while the posterior at least is curved
in the other three genera. In Hecaerge the lip is small, triangular
and truncate at the extremity, while in Textrix and Dolomedes it is
nearly quadrate. These two genera in Mr. BlackwalTs arrangement
belong to altogether different families ; and an analysis of genera in
this manner often gives a very unnatural arrangement ; indeed the
principal object of it is to separate allied groups.

In Dolomedes the maxillae are straight, while in Textrix they are
curved towards the lip. Of the remaining genera in which the eyes
are more or less equal in size, three, namely, Cinifio, Ergatis and Ve-
leda, forming the Ciniflonidae, have a comb on the hind legs. Two
of the remainder, Tlwmisus and Philodromus are characterised by
having the legs extended laterally. In Drassus, Clubiona, Agelena
and Argyroneta the two eye rows are parallel. In Tegenaria the
posterior row is described as being concave in front, and the anterior
row nearly straight, but in the figure given (PI. XII. fig. 107), which
is, we believe, correct, this description is by no means verified. Wale-
kenaer has falleu into exactly the same inaccuracy, though he has
selected a different species {S. domesticd) for illustration. Sparassus,
which has the anterior row convex in front and the posterior row
straight, has only one English species, which is brightly coloured.

The single English species of the genus Argyroneta will offer no
difficulty to the Naturalist. Agelena has the eye rows concave in
front* and the maxillae short. In Drassus and Clubiona the maxillae
are long ; being in the former curved towards the lip, and in the
latter straight.

* This curvature is unfortunately reversed in several of the figures.

412

REVIEWS.

While however we admit that Mr. Blackwall has in most instances
merely followed earlier authorities, and must be acquitted of any
great multiplication of genera on his own account, we may he per-
mitted to doubt whether all those which he has adopted are suffi-
ciently characterised. "We will take, for instance, Thomisus and
Philodromus, placing the characters side by side, as follows :

Philodromus.

JEyes disposed on the anterior
part of the cephalothorax in
two transverse, curved rows,
forming a crescent whose con-
vex side is in front; they do
not differ greatly in size.

Maxillce inclined towards the lip,
and convergent at their extre-
mities.

Lip either triangular or some-
what oval.

Legs so articulated as to be ex-
tended laterally ; they are long,
and vary in their relative
length in different species.

Thomistts.
JEyes disposed on the anterior

part of the cephalothorax in

two transverse rows, forming

either a crescent or a segment

of a circle whose convex side

is in front ; they do not differ

greatly in size.
Maxillce inclined towards the lip,

and pointed at the extremity.
Lip either triangular or oval, but

obtuse at the apex.
Legs so articulated as to be ex-
tended laterally ; the first and

second pairs are longer and

more robust than the third

and fourth pairs.

Comparing together the above characters, it must be at once
evident that if there is any difference it is not one which can fairly
be considered of generic value. According to Walckenaer, indeed,
in JPJiilodromus the legs are equal in length, while in Thomisus the
two posterior pairs are shorter than the others, but this statement is
quite incorrect, as a glance at the figures will show.

Other similar examples might be given, and therefore we cannot
but think that the classification of the Araneidae is very unsatis-
factory, and that many of the genera must be abandoned, unless
better characters can be given. Mr. Blackwall has probably taken a
step in the right direction, in attributing much importance to the
comb of hairs characteristic of the Ciniflonidae. Perhaps also the
spiders with three tarsal claws might be generically separated from
those with two. Mr. Blackwall might, we think, have advan-
tageously shortened his specific descriptions, by putting some of the
points common to the genus either in the generic description, or, at
least, in the general remarks on the group. Eor instance, in all the
28 species of Thomisus and Philodromus, except one in which the
point is overlooked, he remarks that each tarsus is terminated by two
claws. In his remarks on the family Thomisida? he does indeed ob-
serve that each tarsus is usually terminated in this manner, but the
fact is that all the English species, with perhaps one exception, have
this character.

The total number of species described is 120. Only seven species

BLACKWALL'S SPIDERS OF OREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 413

are recorded as having presented varieties ; two in Lycosa, and one
respectively in Dolomedes, Eresus, Salticus, Thomisus and Cinifio.
The number is therefore insufficient to give results of any value, but
it tends to confirm the usual slightly greater variability of large
genera. Four cases are also recorded' in which the eyes were ab-
normal; namely, a specimen of Lycosa cainpestris, in which the
lateral anterior eyes were deficient, one of L. cambrica in which the
right intermediate eye was wanting, a female of Thomisus bifasciatus
had the right posterior eye much smaller than usual, and in a female
of Cinifio atrox the left intermediate eye of the posterior row was
entirely wanting. Mr. Blackwall has only met with one other case
of monstrosity ; namely, a short but perfectly formed supernumerary
tarsus connected with the base of the tarsal joint of the right pos-
terior leg ; this occurred in a female of Lycosa campestris. Thus
four cases of monstrosity out of five occurred in the large genera,
and in the female sex.

Mr. Blackwall mentions that Thomisus pallidus and one or two
of its congeners have " the power of changing the colour of the ante-
rior intermediate pair of eyes from dark red brown to pale golden-
yellow by a very perceptible internal motion," but it does not seem
clear in what manner the movement produces this effect.

As regards the manners and customs of our spiders, it is almost
unnecessary to say that they are all insectivorous. Alypus sulzeri,
like many foreign Mygalidae, excavates a subterranean gallery, in
which it spins a tube of silk j the LycosidaB and Thomisida? are hunters,
and some species of the former are semi-aquatic, running fearlessly
on the surface of the water, and even sometimes descending beneath
it ; the Salticidse take their prey by surprise, frequently springing on
it from a distance ; the Drassidse " conceal themselves in silken cells,
" which they construct among the leaves of plants, in the crevices of
" rocks and walls, and under stones, and the exfoliating bark of aged
" trees ; they run actively in pursuit of the insects which constitute
" their food, or take them by surprise ; but one species, the Argy-
" roneta aquatica, lives habitually in the water of ditches and pools ;"
finally, the Cinifloridse and Agelenida? catch their prey by means of
curious and complicated nets.

In the well-known circular nets of the Epeirse, the concentric
lines only are adhesive ; they are composed of an elastic spiral line,
thickly studded with minute globules of liquid gum, and Mr. Black-
wall has calculated, that an ordinary net fourteen or sixteen inches
in diameter, would contain 120,000 of these globules, in spite of
which the Epeira will complete its snare in less than an hour, if it is
not interrupted.

" Many intelligent naturalists," says Mr. Blackwall, " entertain the opinion that
spiders can forcibly propel or dart out lines from the spinners : but when placed on
twigs set upright in glass vessels with perpendicular sides, containing a quantity of
water sufficient to immerse then- bases completely, all the efforts they make to effect
an escape uniformly prove unavailing in a still atmosphere. However, should the

414 REVIEWS.

individuals thus insulated be exposed to a current of air, either naturally or artifi-
cially produced, they immediately turn the abdomen in the direction of the breeze,
and emit from the spinners a little of their viscid secretion, which being carried out
in a line by the current, becomes connected with some object in the vicinity, and
affords them the means of regaining their liberty. If due precaution be used in
conducting this experiment, it plainly demonstrates that spiders are utterly inca-
pable of darting lines from their spinners, as they cannot possibly escape from their
confinement on the twigs in situations where the air is undisturbed, but in the agi-
tated atmosphere of an inhabited room, they accomplish their object without
difficulty. Similar means are frequently employed by spiders in their natural
haunts, for the purposes of changing their situation and fixing the foundation of
their snares."

The habits of spiders however are little known. The subaqueous
habitation of the water spider (Argijroneta) indeed is well known
from the descriptions of Dr. Bell and others, and according to Mr.
Blackwall —

" The following remarkable physiological facts in connection with Tegenaria
civilis (one of the house spiders) have been ascertained by observation and expe*
riment ; namely, that both sexes change their integument nine times before they
arrive at maturity, once in the cocoon, and eight times after quitting it; that a leg
of a young individual, detached at the coxa (hip) six times consecutively, maybe re^
produced at each succeeding change of integument after the infliction of the injury;
that the life of the species extends through a period of four years; that the sexual
organs of the male are connected with the digital joint of the palpi; and that the
female, after impregnation, is capable of producing nine sets of prolific eggs in suc-
cession, without renewing her intercourse with the male, more than two years elaps-
ing before all are deposited, and ten months nearly intervening sometimes between
the deposition of two consecutive sets."

It is well known that spiders are essentially insectivorous and
like other animals of prey they can go a long while without food,
A female Theridion cpcadripunctatum has been known to exist for
eighteen months without nutriment in a phial closely corked.

Though unsocial and voracious, many spiders have, in their affec-
tion for their young, at least one redeeming feature. They lay from
thirty to two hundred eggs at once, and " usually spin silken cocoons
" for their reception, which exhibit much diversity of form, colour,
" and consistency, and are placed in various situations, according to
" the economy of the species, by which they are fabricated. Many
" spiders abandon their cocoons so soon as they are completed ;
" others manifest great attachment to them, watching over them with
" the utmost solicitude ; and some, connecting them with the spin-
" ners by silken lines, or grasping them with the falces and palpi,
" transport them whenever they move." In some species the young
spiders on leaving the cocoon attach themselves to the body of their
parent, who carries them about until they are able to provide for
themselves.

With reference to the senses of the Arachnida, Mr. Blackwall
says : —

" Nothing is known with certainty concerning the organs of smell and hearing
in spiders. As regards taste, the choice which these animals make of their food
sufficiently indicates that it exists, and it is probable that the organ id situated at the

BLACKWALl/s SPIDERS OP GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 415

enhance of the pharynx. Numerous circumstances tend to prove that spiders are
endowed with considerable delicacy of touch, but the installments more especially
adapted to bring them into relation with surrounding objects are the legs and palpi.
The presence of eyes, which are of the kind termed simple, in opposition to those
of insects and crustaceous animals, which are denominated compound, leaves no
doubt relative to the sight of spiders, though, in all probability, they see objects dis-
tinctly at short distances only."

They appear to "be less subject to parasites than many other
animals, but Polysphinata carbonaria, one of the Ichneumonida?, lays
its eggs in the bodies of young Spiders, which when thus infested never
come to maturity.

Mr. Blackwall's present volume, however, being devoted to the
description and classification of Spiders, their anatomy and habits are
only mentioned incidentally, and he refers to his Memoir in the Trans-
actions of the British Association for 1844 As regards the function
performed by the palpi of the male, his subsequent investigations
have confirmed him in the belief that these " organs are the only
efficient instruments employed by male spiders in the propagation of
their species." It is, however, unnecessary to observe that the sper-
matozoa do not originate in this position ; the testes are, as is well
known, situated in the abdomen, and Treviranus has shown, that the
vas deferens of the male opens in the same position as that of the
female. It would appear, therefore, though Mr. Blackwall has not
noticed the fact, that the semen must pass externally into the palpi,
and be there retained until it is required. Nor is this incredible,
since after the extraordinary facts which have been observed in cer-
tain Cuttlefishes and Centipedes, no mode of impregnation ought to
stagger us.

In conclusion, it may perhaps be well to say a few words about
the irregularity in the appearance of the Bay Society's Volumes.
Neither the fact, nor the inconvenience, can be denied, but the remedy
is not so plain. The arrangements have always been made three or
four years in advance, the books have been promised by the authors,
the authors have been applied to from time to time, and it is difficult
to see what more the Council could have done.* Neither can we
throw much blame on the authors. No one for instance will accuse
Mr. Huxley or Mr. Blackwall of idleness ; the delay has been mainly
caused by their wish to render their works as perfect as possible, and
so much excellence may well atone for some little unpunctuality.

We understand, however, that Mr. Carrey's translation of Hof-
meister is in a forward condition, and that- it will be published within
the year, and we hope that this may be the beginning of greater re-
gularity ; but at any rate the large number of subscribers shows that
the publications of "the Bay Society are well appreciated by natura-
lists, and that the members, even if they not unnaturally grumble a
little, still take for their motto, "better late than never."

* In the present case indeed much delay was caused by the fact that it was
found necessary to colour the plates by hand.
YOL. I. — N. H. E. 3 H

416 REVIEWS.

XLIII. — Eecent Conteibutions to the Liteeatuee of the
Sue-kingdom C(elenteeata.

1. Beiteage ztje Kenntniss Wiebellosee Thiebe. Yon Dr. H.

Prey, und Dr. B. Leuckart: Braunscliweig, 1847.

2. Lectuees on Geneeal Natueal Histoey. By Thomas H.

Huxley, E.B.S. &c, &c. (Published in the Medical Times and
Gazette, 1856-7.) Lectures IV. and V.

3. Icones ZooTOMiCiE. Mit Originalbeitragen der Herren G. J.
Allrnan, C. Gegenbaur, Th. H. Huxley, Alb. Kolliker, H. Miiller,
M. S. Schultze, C. Th. E. Yon Siebold, und F. Stein. Herausge-
geben von Julius Yictor Carus, Professor der Yergleichenden
Anatomie in Leipzig. Leipzig, 1857. Tafel II.-IY.

4. Histoiee Natubelle bes Coealliaiees ou Polypes peopee-

ments dits. Par H. Milne Edwards, Membre de 1' Institut, &c.
Paris, 1857-60.

5. Geunbzuge bee Yeegleichenben Anatomie. Yon Dr. Carl

Gegenbaur, Professor der Anatomie zu Jena. Leipzig, 1859.
Zweiter Abschnitt. Coelenterata.

6. The Oceanic Htbeozoa; a Description of the Calycophoridae
and PhysophoridsB observed during the voyage of H.M.S. " Eattle-
snake," in the years 1846-50. With a General Introduction. By
Thomas Henry Huxley, E.E.S., &c, &c. London: printed for
the Eay Society, 1859.

7. Die Klassen und Oebnungen bes Thiee-eeichs, wissen-

SCHAETLICH BAEGESTELLT IN WOET UNB BlLB. Yon Dr. H. G".

Bronn, Professor an der Universitat Heidelberg. Zweiter Band,
Strahlenthiere : Actinozoa. Lief. I.-YI. Leipzig imd Heidelberg,
1859-60.

8. A Manual oe the Sub-kingbom Ccelenteeata. By Joseph

Eeay Greene, B.A., Professor of Natural History in the Queen's
College, Cork, &c, &c. London, 1861.

The sub-kingdom Coelenterata has not yet been acknowledged as
such in the writings of several Zoologists. Some have endeavoured to
convince themselves of its supposed unsuitability. Others, and these
the greater number, slow to appreciate the facts and arguments
brought forward by recent enquirers or, it may be, unduly impressed
with the belief that all classification is, at best, but provisional, have
rejected it, less from conviction, than from an indolent or prejudiced
adherence to the systems usually adopted in the older treatises on
Zoology.

The Reviewer, therefore, proposes to take a brief survey of the
leading views which, during the present century, have prevailed
with reference to the systematic relations of the animal forms in
question. A knowledge of such views, in itself sufficiently desirable,
becomes necessary for those who wish to consult, with ease and ad-
vantage, the numerous memoirs which have, from time to time, treated
of Ccelenterate organisms, under whatsoever designation.

LITERATURE OE THE SUB-KINGDOM C(ELEXTERATA. 417

In comparing Zoological systems it is requisite, in the first place,
to select some well known classification which may serve for a con-
venient standard of comparison. For this purpose that of Cuvier1 is
above all others to be preferred ; first, by reason of its intrinsic merits,
and, secondly, on account of its historical value, strongly contrasting,
as it did, with the arrangements of his predecessors, and forming, so
to speak, the basis on which the greater number of succeeding sys-
tems have been reared. "We shall, accordingly, proceed to indicate
the place which Ccelenterate animals held in the classification of
Cuvier, and then notice the gradual changes of opinion which have
led modern investigators to adopt the more accurate view of their
affinities now entertained.

Of the four primary branches, or sub-kingdoms, into which the
entire animal kingdom was divided by Cuvier, the lowest, Zoophyta2
or Eadiata, included five classes, viz. : —

1. ECHINODERMATA.

2. Intestina.

3. Acaleph^:.

4. Polypi.

5. Infusoria.

In thus bringing together a number of animal forms having few
characters in common save a certain vague resemblance in outward
aspect, and an inferiority, real or supposed, in the details of their
organization, Cuvier lost sight of the principle, so important in bio-
logical classification, which no one has more happily defined than its
first and clearest enunciator, Yon Baer.3 In the year 1828 this most
philosophic of naturalists drew attention to the distinction between
the grade of development of an animal and the type of its organization.
The grade of development of an animal he denned as consisting " in
the greater or less heterogeneity of its elementary parts and of the
separate divisions of a complex apparatus ; in a word, in its greater
histological and morphological differentiation :" the type as " the
relative position of the parts." And since no real agreement in type,
or plan of structure, exists among the several divisions of Cuvier's
Zoophyta, it follows that this sub-kingdom can no longer be regarded
as constituting a truly natural group.4

1 Le Regne Animal. Nouvelle edition. Paris, 1829-30.

2 For some account of the several senses hi which this term has heen used
see, especially, De Blainvillc, Manuel d' Aetinologic, p. 1; Johnston, History of
British Zoophytes, second edition, passim ; and Dana, Structure and Classification
of Zoophytes, p. 7. The word Phytozoa is of more modern construction, and may be
found in the work of Goldfnss, cited below.

3 See the English translation (by Mr. Huxley) of selections from the works of
Von Baer, in Taylor's Scientific Memoirs, Natural History, 1853. p. 195.

4 " We believe, in fact, (writes Von Baer^, that Cuvier has penetrated most
deeply into the relations of animal organisms. But he does not satisfy us in this ;
that he requires in the Mollusca and Articulata not oidy the type of their organiza-

418 EEYIEWS.

It should be remembered, however, that much which is now
known of the structure of the lower animals had, at the time of
Cuvier, been very imperfectly acquired, and that many of the im-
provements in classification for which he had prepared the way waited
only to be revealed by the clearer light of subsequent anatomical
discoveries.

Thus many investigators have agreed to transfer the class Intes-
tina to the Articulate sub-kingdom (preferably known as Annullosa).
Here, also, have been placed the Eotifera, by Cuvier associated with
the Infusoria.5

So, likewise, the class of animals now known as Polyzoa or Bryo-
zoa, whose several forms Cuvier had distributed among the Polypir
has been since removed to the sub-kingdom Mollusca.6

The Sponges were by Cuvier regarded as animals and classed with
the Polypes, a view of their affinities which some Zoologists still
continue to hold.7 Most, however, are disposed to place the Sponges*
Infusoria,, and other organisms of like structure subsequently disco-
vered, in a group distinct from the remaining Zoophyta. Thus
Milne Edwards (first excluding the Intestina, Eotifera, and Polyzoa)
has arranged the other Zoophyta under two. groups,8 as follows : —

ZOOPHYTES.

Classes.
Radiaires ( Ecmnodeemes

OU < ACALEPHES

A. rayonnes. ( Polypes.

Sareodaires. \ skhhhaiem.

The Sareodaires are now more generally considered as a distinct
&ub-kingdom, under the name of Protozoa.9 So that the sub-kingdom

tion, but also a certain degree of development, — a condition which can only be
required of the single classes. The consequence is, that all the animals of low
organization are thrown among the Kadiata, although very many of them are by no
means radiate in their structure. The boundaries under these circumstances could
only be drawn arbitrarily."

5 Milne Edwards, in 1838, clearly pointed out the necessity for effecting these
changes. Vid. Ann. S. N., Ser. 2, Tom X. p. 194.

6 For a concise account of the several steps of this transference consult Alhnan,
Fresh-water Polyzoa, p. 2 ; and Busk, A. N. H., 1852, Ser. 2, Vol. X. p. 352.

7 Van Beneden et Gervais, and R. Leuckart, writing in 1859, appear to give it
their sanction -

8 Cours Elementaire d' Histoire Naturelle — Zoologie. — The above has been
copied from the eighth edition, 1858.

9 Siebolcl, Lehrbueh der vergleichenden Anatomie — Wirbellose Thiere — 1845.
But the term Protozoa may be found in the works of older writers, and appeal's to
have been first used by Goldfuss, in his Handbuch der Zoologie, 1820.

LITEKATTTRE OF THE STJB-EXNGDOM CCELENTEEATA. 419

Badiata, as restricted in recent works, includes but three classes :10 —

1. ECHIXODEEMATA.

2. ACALEPH^!.

3. Polypi.

It has been shown, however, by Trey and Leuckart11 that the
Polypi and Acalephse, while possessing in common a plan of structure
peculiar to themselves, differ, on the other hand, both as to type and
grade of organization, from the members of the group Ecliinoclermata.
They have, therefore, proposed to associate the two former classes in
a separate sub-kingdom, under the name of Ccelenterata,12 i.e., animals
having a well marked body-cavity, freely communicating with that
portion of it which may be concerned in the discharge of the digestive
functions. The propriety of this arrangement has been acknowledged
by some of our most trustworthy living observers.

Thus far with reference to the sub-kingdom Ccelenterata as a
whole ; next, as to its classes and orders. It has been said that this
group includes the two classes termed Acalephse and Polypi in the
system of Cuvier, the Sponges and Polyzoa being no longer associated
with the latter.

Cuvier thus divided the Acalephse and Polypi into orders : —

Les Acalephes. Les Polypes.

Ordre 1. A. Simples. Ordre 1. P. Ckaenus.

Ordre 2. A. Htdrostatiques. Ordre 2. P. Gelatlweiix.

Ordre 3. P. a Polypiees.

Pew zoologists, however, adopted these divisions. Eschscholtz,13
in 1829, suggested a re- distribution of the Acalephae which soon met
with very general approval, and, in many of its features, is still

10 For example, Edward Forbes, so far back as 1840, recognizes the propriety of
employing the tenn Radiata in the above limited sense. See the introduction to his
History of British Star-fishes.

11 Op. s. cit., pp. 37-8.

12 What then, it may be asked, becomes of the class Echinodermata ? To this
question the answer is, that not less than four different views are at present main-
tained as to the systematic position of these animals : —

1. That of those naturalists who refuse to acknowledge the Ccelenterata, and
regard the Echinodermata as a class of the sub-kingdom Radiata.

2. That of R. Leuckart, Gegenbaur, J. V. Carus, and others, who place the
Echinodermata in a sub-kingdom by themselves) distinct from the sub-kingdom Cce-
lenterata.

3. The intermediate view of Milne Edwards who, retaining the old group of
Radiata, considers the Echinodermata and Ccelenterata as constituting its two pri-
mary, equivalent sub-divisions.

4. Lastly, it has been proposed by Huxley, who acknowledges the sub-kingdom
Coelenterata, to refer the Echinodermata, as a class, to the Annullose sub-kingdom,
with certain forms of which (the Intestina and Rotifera of Cuvier) they constitute a
very natural assemblage, best known under the name of Annulloida.

13 System der Acalcphen, Berlin, 1829.

420 REVIEW3,

well worthy of notice. His arrangement, compared with that of the
French naturalist, De Blainville,14 whose nomenclature of the Aca-
lephse several English writers have followed, is indicated in the sub-
joined table.15

ACALEPHJE.

Hschscholtz. J)e Blainville.

Order I. Cte^ophoka. =± Ciliogeada.

Order II. Discophoea. ^

1. Phanerocarpoe. S = PuLMOOEADA.

2. Cryptocarpaj. j

Order III. Siphonophoea.
Family 1.

DlPHYID^!. = DlPHYDA.

Family 2.
Physopiioeid^). = Physogeada.

Family 3.

VeLELLID^.16 = ClEEHIGEADA.

The Pulmograda and Cirrhigrada form the only two orders of a
class to which De Blainville gave the name of Arachnodermata. The
remaining Acalephs he associated with the Entozoa and Infusoria
in a group of uncertain constitution, which he denned as " faux,
mais animaux a tort rapportes aux Zoophytes." His vague and
erroneous statements as to the affinities of these organisms, present
a striking contrast to the tersely accurate scientific descriptions,
wherein, no less than in his incomparably richer stores of knowledge
gained by observation, Eschscholtz appears superior to his French
contemporary.

More recently, Edward Forbes,17 followed by Lutken,18 and Gre-
genbaur,19 gave greater definiteness to the leading groups of Disco-
phora, introducing various improvements into the limitation of the
several families. Other modes of sub-dividing the Acaleplije had, it
is true, long before been proposed by Peron et Lesueur,20 Brandt,21
and Lesson,22 but never having been generally received, and present-
ing no advantages over the classifications mentioned above, they do
not call for any detailed consideration.

11 Article " Zoophytes" in Dictionnaire cles Sciences Naturelles, 1830, and
Manuel d' Actinologie ou de Zoophytologie, 1 834.

,5 With various slight modifications De Blainville's names have been adopted
by Carpenter, E. Forbes, Grant, Rymer Jones, and Owen.

16 The families of the two preceding orders have, for obvious reasons, been ex-
cluded from this table.

17 A Monograph of the British Naked-eyed Medusae, 1848.

18 Videns. Med., 1850, p. 15.

19 Versuch eines Systems der Medusen, &c. Z. W. Z., 1857, Band. 8, p. 202.

20 Annales du Museum, 1809.

21 Prodromus, &c, Petersb. Mem., 1833.

22 Acaleph.es, in Nouvelles Suites a Buffon, 1843.

LITEKATUEE OF THE SUE-KINGDOM CCELENTEEATA. 421

Of the Polypi, three principal arrangements have prevailed, those
of Ehrenberg,33 Milne Edwards,24 and Johnston;25 the first being
chiefly adopted by German, the second by French, and the third by
English naturalists. Ehrenberg, whose classification has precedence
in point of time over those of his predecessors, conferred upon this
class the name of Anthozoa,26 which Johnston27 subsequently adopted.

ANTHOZOA.
Ordo I. Ordo II.

ZOOCORALLIA. PlIYTOCORALLIA.

Tribus 1. Z. Poly actinia. Tribus 4. P. Poly actinia.

„ 2. Z. OCTACTINIA. „ 5. P. DODECACTINIA.

„ 3. Z. Oligactinia. „ G. P. Octactikea.

Hydrina, „ 7. P. Oligactinia.

Tubularina.
Sertularina.

Tlie arrangements of Johnston and Milne Edwards, first pub-
lished contemporaneously,27* may be thus exhibited : —

Polypes. Anthozoa.

Milne Edwards. Johnston.

I. Seetulaieiens. = I. Hydeolda.

II. Alcyoniens. = II. Asteeoida.

III. ZOANTHAIEES. = III. HELIANTHOIDA.28

The first of these groups corresponds to the Zoocorallia Oligac-
tinia of Ehrenberg ; the second to his Z. Octactinia, Phytocorallia
Octactinia, and P. Oligactinia ; while the third includes all remain-
ing tribes of his two orders.

23 Beitrage ztir physiologischen Kenntniss der Corallenthiere im allgemeinen,
und besonders des rothen Meeres, &c, Berl. Abh., 1834, p. 225.

14 Audouin and Milne Edwards, in Lamarck, Hist. Nat. des An. sans Verteb.
ed. 2, Tom. II., p. 105, 1836.

25 Magazine of Zoology and Botany, Vol. I. p. 447.

26 As distinguished from Bryozoa, the two groups being collectively denomi-
nated Corallia. At a later period, the Zoocorallia oligactinia were separated by
Ehrenberg from the Anthozoa to form a third class, which he named Dimorphcea.

27 History of British Zoophytes, 2nd edition, 1847. This work and the Manuel
of De Blainville, may be consulted by those who wish to obtain information con-
cerning the older and more obscure arrangements of these organisms.

27* It should be remembered, however, that at p. 18 of their Resume des Be-
cherches sur les Animaux sans vertebrcs, faifes aux lies Chausey, Ann. S. N. 1828,
the classification of Polypi afterwards adopted by M.M. Audouin et Milne
Edwards is partly sketched out.

28 These three equivalent divisions are by Johnston termed orders ; by Milne
Edwards, families. The name Helianthoida has been taken by Johnston from
Latreille.

422 EETIEWS.

So much, then, for the old classes, Acalephse and Polypi, groups
by no means susceptible of accurate definition. The Acalephse of
Cuvier and Eschscholtz differ, iudeed, much more among themselves
than do many of them from the Polypi, presenting little mutual
agreement save in their Coelenterate orgauization, gelatinous texture,
and oceanic habit. Yet more difficult is it to point out such ana-
tomical features as are common to the various forms of Polypi, ex-
cepting, of course, those which justify their being placed in the same
sub-kiugdom. It is not correct to say that, like the Acalephse, they
observe a certain similarity in their mode of life, considerable differ-
ences in this respect prevailing even among closely allied genera.
But, were it otherwise, so purely physiological a tendency would avail
the systematist little. For since the same essential may coexist with
very different adaptive characters, community of habit, apart from
resemblance in plan of structure, affording no safe ground for classi-
fication, it is plain that the two groups of Coelenterata to which re-
ference has been made can no longer be regarded as natural. What
others, then, have been substituted in their stead ?

To Professor Eapp, of Tubingen, must be ascribed the merit of
having first pointed out the way towards a right solution of the diffi-
culty now under consideration. In a small quarto treatise,29 pub-
lished at Weimar in 1829, this zoologist laid down with great clear-
ness and precision, the limits of two primary sections of the class
Polypi, bearing the names of Exoarii and Endoarii. The Exoarii
contained those Polypes which developed their generative elements
within external processes of the body wall ; the Endoarii those whose
reproductive organs were lodged in the interior of the general cavity.
This last division corresponded to the second and third orders in the
arrangements of Johnston and Milne Edwards.

At a much later period both Dana30 and Milne Edwards,31 ac-
knowledged two groups of Polypi equivalent in systematic value to
those of Eapp. Previously both Owen and Ehrenberg had raised
these divisions to the rank of classes ; the Exoarii being designated
Hydrozoa,38 while the term Anthozoa, first applied by Ehrenberg to
all the Coelenterate Polypes, was restricted to the Endoarii.

29 Ueber die Polypen im Allgemeinen unci die Actinien insbesondere.

30 Eeport on Zoophytes, U. S. Exploring Expedition, 1846.

31 In the Introduction to their Monograph of the British Fossil Corals, published
by the Paleeontographical Society, 1850, Milne Edwards and Haime divided the
Polypi into two equal sub-classes, Corallaria and Hydraria. The Corallaria corres-
pond to the orders Zoantharia and Alcyonaria in the earlier arrangement of Milne
Edwards, the Hydraria to his Sertulairiens.

32 Lectures on the Invertebrate Animals, 1843, p. 86.

33 In addition to the Hydrozoa of Owen, Rapp included among his Exoarii a
small group of Polypes, to which he gave the name of Milleporen. It is not easy
to determine the precise sense in which the latter is used, but, obviously, Ilapp
meant not thereby to designate the forms now placed in the family of Milleporida).

LITERATURE OF THE SUB-KINGDOM C(ELENTEBATA,

423

The arrangements of Eapp, Ehrenberg, Owen and Dana are com-
pared in the following table : —

POLYPI. ZOOPHYTA.

Bapp, 1S29. Ehrenberg, 1836. Owen, 1843. Dana, 1846.

Section 1. Class. Class. Order I.

Exoarii. = Dimorphoea. = Hydrozoa. = Hydroidea.
Section 2. Class. Class. Order 2.

Endoarii. = Anthozoa. = Anthozoa. = Actinoidea.

Tims diminished in extent, the class Anthozoa has since been
adopted by more than one writer, and answers to the group so termed
by J. Y. Cams and Kolliker ;34 to the class Polypi in the systems of
Yogt, G-egenbaur, Agassiz and others j and to the recently established
class Coralliaria of Milne Edwards.

The Hydrozoa, on the other hand, have been enriched by the ad-
dition of all, or nearly all, the forms included under the Acalephse of
Eschscholtz and Cuvier ; the Discophora and Siphonophora of the
last mentioned writer being now no longer separable, as members of
a distinct class, from the fixed Hydrozoa (CorynidsB and Sertularidse),
which in structure they have been proved to resemble.

The removal of the Discophorous Acalephas to the class Hydrozoa
may be viewed as the chief systematic result of the researches of
numerous observers on the so-called phenomena of " alternate genera-
tion," as occurring among Coelenterate forms.

Eirst, it has been shown by Sars, Siebold, Steenstrup, Reid, Dal-
yell, Desor, Yan Beneden, and others that the ova of Aurelia,
Cyanea and Chrysaora, three of the best known and most widely
distributed genera of Phanerocarpae, become developed into fixed
polype-like organisms, or " Hydra-tubse ;" these, in their turn, by
transverse fission, producing a succession of free floating forms
similar to those which gave them birth, and which, under the vulgar
name of jelly-fishes, are familiar, in outward appearance, to almost
every sea-side resident. These investigations, it must be admitted,
refer only to the Monostome family of the Phanerocarpae. But

34 The Coelenterata and Rryozoa are by Kolliker retained in one division, named
Radiata Molluscoidea, (as distinguished "from R. Echinodennata), and arranged
under six groups, as follows : —

First group: Hydroidea. — Divided into H. sessilia (= Hydra) and H. nech-
alea, (including all the Siphonophora except the Velelliche, which are doubtful).

Second group: Hydromedusida. — Here are placed the Corynidre, Sertularidae,
Yelellidas, (?) and Cryptocarpse.

Third group: Discophora. — (= Phancrocarpse.)

Fourth group: Ctenopiiora.

Fifth group : Anthozoa.

Sixth group: Bryozoa.

Vid. p. 77, of Kolliker's "Die Schwimmpolypen oder Siphonophorcn von Mes-
sina," 1853.

VOL. I.— ^. H. B. 3 I

424 EEYIEWS.

Busch, Ecker, Frantzius and Gegenbaur have since ascertained that
a like series of transformations would seem to mark the life-history
of the two Bhizostomatous genera, Cephea and Cassiopeia.^

Still more extended inquiries have proved that many forms of
Corynida? and Sertularidse bud forth free-swimming reproductive
bodies closely resembling, in every anatomical feature, not a few of
the apparently perfect animals which constitute the division of Cryp-
tocarpa?.

To appreciate such facts aright the student must ever bear in
mind the existence of a most perfect and wonderful series of transi-
tional structures, connecting those highly differentiated " Zooids"
with the simple reproductive processes occurring in a few genera of
Hydrozoa ; processes which may truly be said to differ in their con-
tents alone from any other portion of the body -wall.36 As a sup-
plement to the preceding remarks it may seem strange to add that
the observations just noticed, though highly valuable in themselves,
were not needed to demonstrate the necessity for uniting into a single
class forms so closely resembling one another in structure as the
Discophora and fixed Hydrozoa. An appeal to anatomical evidence,
had such been carefully made, ought of itself to have sufficiently shown
the desirability of such an arrangement. The study of their develop-
ment, however, affords a new and striking proof of the true morpho-
logical relations which unite together the organisms in question,
while, at the same time, it discloses the existence of a still more inti-
mate genetic connection subsisting between them.

Perhaps no special department of Morphology has of late years
brought to light results at once so complete and satisfactory as that
which proves the close nature of the relationship between the plant-
like Corynidae and SertularidaB on the one hand, and the oceanic
Siphonophora on the other ;37 a relationship which their obvious dis-

35 Consult, in addition to the English translation of Steenstrup on the Alterna-
tion of Generations, Ray Society, 1845, the essay of Gegenbaur — Zur Lehre vom
Generationswechsel und der Fortpflanzung bei Medusen und Polypen, 1854, for
references to the works of the various authors mentioned in the above paragraph.

35 On this subject the recently-published memoirs of Allman are of primary im-
portance. See his paper — On the Structure of the Reproductive Organs in certain
Hydroid Polypes, R. S. E. Proc. 1857-8. Additional Observations on the Morpho-
logy of the Reproductive Organs in the Hydroid Polypes, ibid, 1858; and Notes on
the Hydroid Zoophytes, A. N. H. 1859-61, passim.

a7 In the Ann. S. N. for 1841 (torn, xvi.), an excellent memoir on the structure
of Stephanomia appeared from the pen of Milne Edwards. For the student of the
history of zoology this paper possesses a considerable interest, as being by far the best
and most complete account of a Siphonophorous Acaleph which had, up to that time,
been published. It was followed by the essays of Mr. Huxley, read before the Royal
and Linnean Societies in 1849. In these the true nature of the Siphonophora, and
their affinity to the fixed Hydrozoa and Medusidre, received very complete elucida-
tion ; yet, OAving to certain delays on the part of the Linnean Society, the views of
Mr. Huxley were at first but imperfectly announced and remained comparatively un-
known until the year 1851, when the same observer, contemporaneously with Leuck-
art, again directed attention to the curious morphological problem which the organi-

LITERATTJBE OF THE SUB-KINGDOM CCELENTEEATA. 425

similarity in outward form and habit had long kept concealed from
the notice of observers apparently by no means wanting in patience
or ingenuity. A peculiar feeling of pleasure, therefore, attends the
perusal of the works of those investigators, whose skilful use of such
opportunities as lay within their reach, first led them to form right
conjectures as to the proper affinities of the Siphonophora.

Xike most CorynidaB and Sertularidse, these creatures are, in
general, of composite structure, presenting a hollow stem, or coeno-
sarc, by which numbers of digestive zooids (polypites) are connected.
G-enerative bodies, agreeing in all respects with those of the fixed
Hydrozoa, are also borne on the same stem. Thus the mode in which
both groups of organisms discharge the two great processes of nutri-
tion and reproduction, save as to a few comparatively unimportant
matters of detail, is precisely similar. It is otherwise with the func-
tions of relation. For in the Siphonophora, the entire compound mass,
not, as in the Corynidie and Sertularida?, permanently fixed by one of
its extremities to some fragment of rock, shell, sea-weed, or other
foreign support, is free and endowed with the power of executing a
variety of graceful movements, due, for the most part, to a very simple
arrangement of contractile tissues, and further assisted, in many cases,
by the addition of special organs which are at once seen to bear a
close resemblance to the swimming-bells (nectocalyces) of the Cryp-
tocarpse. But, while in the members of this group, a single digestive
zooid is, in a manner, suspended from the roof of its swimming-bell
and thus brought into immediate connection with the canal system of
the latter, — in the Siphonophora the polypites and nectocalyces are
attached independently to different parts of the common trunk,
through which alone a distant communication between their cavities
is maintained. Besides the reproductive organs, polypites, and swim-
ming bells, (these last being sometimes absent) many other append-
ages may arise from the coenosarc of the Siphonophora. In one large
section of the group its anterior extremity forms a float-like expan-
sion, or pneumatophore, within which a hollow air-vesicle, the pneu-
matocyst, is lodged. Such forms have now been placed in a separate
order, Physophoridae, as distinguished from another division of equi-
valent value, the Calycophoriche, in which there is no air-vesicle,
while swimming bells are constantly present.

Thus the dismemberment of the old classes, Acalephas and Polypi,
may now be regarded as complete. But with reference alike to the
precise limits and nomenclature of those primary groups of Ccelente-

zation of the Siphonophora presented. Another interval of two years elapsed, when
the chief difficulties of the subject were finally set at rest by the nearly simultaneous
publication of three memoirs on the part of Yogt, Kolliker and Leuckart, respec-
tively, wherein the structural features of several genera of Siphonophora were
reviewed in detail and illustrated by numerous figures. Both Leuckart and Gegen-
baur, in the course of the following year (1854), made further valuable contributions
to the same department of zoophytology. (For a full citation of all the works and
papers Iiere referred to, vid. the bibliography given by Huxley, op. s. cit.)

426 REVIEWS.

rata which should be substituted in their stead, naturalists still hold
different opinions. These discrepancies, happily, exist less in appear-
ance than in reality, and for the most part, as will presently be made
clear, are of a secondary or non-essential character.

Under the name of Hydromedusse38 Vogt,39 Sars, Leuckart, G-egen-
baur and J. V. Cams acknowledge a very natural class, including the
Hydroid Polypes (Hydra, Corynidse and Sertularida?) together with
the Siphonophora and Discophora. Bronn,40 however, separates the
HydromedusaB into two classes ; Hydra? and Medusae, of which the
first contains but one genus, Hydra.

Milne Edwards, also, has recently assigned Hydra to a separate class.
The same distinguished zoologist41 further suggests the restoration of
the old term Acalephse to designate a group including, besides the
Hydromedusa? of Vogt, the well-marked order Ctenophora, or, in other
words, all the Acalepha? of Eschscholtz, together with the Hydrozoa
of Owen. Such, too, is the opinion of Agassiz.42 But while this natu-
ralist considers all these " Acalephae" as forming a single class, Milne
Edwards does not hesitate to divide them into, at least, three distinct
classes, — " Les Medusaires, les Siphonophores et les Hydraires."

In the accompanying table, the latest views of Milne Edwards,
both as to the systematic position and primary divisions of Coelen-
terate animals are exhibited in a compendious form.

Embeanciiement des Zoophytes.

Saecodaiees. Eadiaiees.

ECHI]S"0DEEMES. CcELENTEEES.

Classe 1. Acalepues.

( , N

Classe 1. Classe 2. Classe 3.

Coealliaiees.
1.

HVDEAIEES. SlPKONOPlIOEES. Medusaiees.

38 Leuckart (Bericht in Wiegmanns's Arch.) terms the class Hydrasvxedusce ; and
Gegcnbaur ( Op. s. cit), Ilt/dromerfvsvla. See note 34 p. 423.

39 In his Zoologische Briefe, 1851, the group HydromedusEe, as established by
Vogt, does not include the Siphonophora, of which he makes a separate class. But,
in 1853, he fully recognizes their true affinities, regarding them as but an order of
his class Hydromedusaj. (Gen. Inst., Tom. I., p. 144).

40 Op. s. cit. pp. 78 & 85. Bronn arranges the Ccelcnterata under four classes
Polypi, Hydra:, Medusre, and Ctenophora.

41 Op. s. cit. p. 4. Here no special mention is made of the Ctenophora, but there
can be little doubt that Prof. Milne Edwards considers them as constituting a sub-
division of his class Medusaires. A perusal of pp. 301 — 306 of the fifth volume of
his Lecons sur la Physiologie, published in 1859, appears further to confirm such a
conclusion.

42 Essay on Classification, 1S59, p. 294.

LITERATUEE OF TIIE SUB-KINGDOM CCELENTEEAI \. J 27

The class Coralliaires Milne Edwards dhidos into two equal sec-
lions, in one of whirl), Cnidaiivs, are placed all the Actiuoid poJ
(Zoantharia and Alcyonaria), while the seror.d di\ ision, Podactinaircs,
includes but the genns Lucernaria of older authors (tamilv Lticer-
nariad;e of Johnston). The true position of this curious form and
its immediate allies is a question of linn-h interest to the swirmatie
zoologist, imolving as it does, to a certain extent, the determination
of those Urst principles which should guide him in the recognition of
natural groups among the Cielentera.ta, "Jihrcnborg, l)a-.:i. Juh;
and the greater number of those who, since the time of Cuvier. ha\e
written on Lucernaria^ associate this genus with the Aciinoid
polypes, not far from Actinia itself. But a grown ■■_■; idea of is dis-
similarity in structure to the true Polypes has of late jri ars I
impressed on the minds of several zoologists. Thus, in lSoO,1 ' Miiae
Edwards referred it to an order equivalent to Zoantharia or Alcyena riii,
and in 1857,4s as has been shown, he regarded it, from a systematic
point of view, as on a par with these two orders taken collectively ;
so that, while placing it in one class with the polypes proper, ho,
nevertheless, removed it to the greatest possible distance from these
organisms, consistent with such an estimate of its affinities. But
others, at a much earlier date, had gone still further. Lamarck, in
1816,46 had hinted at the relationship of Lucernaria to the Disco-
phora ; and twenty-four years later, in one of the notes appended to
the posthumous edition of his principal Work, a similar opinion is
still more explicitly urged by Dujardin.47 Greater definiteness was
soon after given to this view of the nature of Lucernaria by Frey and
Leuckart,48 who, in the same treatise wherein they first called attention
to the existence of the sub-kingdom Ccelenterata, instituted a direct
comparison between the organization of Lucernaria and Pclagia,
tending to show that the four-lipped alimentary proboscis of the
former is truly the homologue of the prehensile nutrient organ de-
pending from the swimming disc of the latter ; this disc, moreover,
which bears round its margin a number of long slender tentacles,
corresponding in its structural relations to the cup-like body-wall of
Lucernaria, which, though usually fixed, is, at times, capable of per-
forming the function of natation. In the following year, the
systematic position of Lucernaria was reconsidered by Leuckart, who
still, however, hesitated to remove it from the class of Polypi, though,

43 In the second edition of the licgnc Animai, Luccrnaria\% placed after Actinia
and Zoanthus; in the first edition (1817) a nearer view is taken of its relationship
to the Discophora.

44 Edwards and Ilainie, in Monograph of British Fossil Corals, Introduction,
p. lxxxv.

45 Op. s. cit. Tom. I. p. 94.

46 " Lcs luccvnaires commcnccnt a donncr une idee des mcdttsaires." — Hist. Nat.
des An. sans Vertcb , Tom. II., p. 473.

47 Second cd. of Lamarck's Hist. Nat. des An. Sflbs Vertcb , Tom. 3, p. 5S.
43 Beitrage, p. 10, and PL I. figs. 3 and 4.

428 EEVIEWS.

like Milne Edwards, lie regarded it as the sole representative of a
primary division of this group, for which he proposes the name of
Cylicozoa.49 And this opinion he appears still to hold. But the
question as to the Medusan affinities of the Lucernariadae was
not permitted to rest. In 1856, Professor Huxley50 again dis-
cussed their close resemblance in structure to the Discophora
Phanerocarpse of Eschscholtz, more particularly to those so-called
larval forms of this group, which, since the appearance of Dalyell's
work, have become familiar in elementary treatises under the name
of Hydrce tubed. In both Lucemaria and Hydra-tuba a true digestive
zooid, or polypite, is seen to project from the centre of the free
extremity of the animal. In both, likewise, this polypite is surrounded
by a variously-shaped cup or disc, bearing the marginal tentacles,
and formed by an expansion of the body-wall, homologous with the
natatorial organ, or umbrella, so conspicuous in most "jelly-fishes."
Again : the space intervening between this umbrella and the sides of
the central polypite is, both in Lucemaria and Hydra-tuba, divided
into a number of sinuses, which must by no means be confounded
with the body-chambers of Actinia, seeing that the partitions which
separate them present an anatomical arrangement very different to
that of the mesenteries in the last-mentioned genus and its allies.
And, in both genera, the position of the reproductive organs is
strikingly dissimilar ; for while, in Lucemaria, they are lodged within
four equi-distant folds, which descend along the body of the polypite,
in Actinia, as is well known, they are situate below the gastric sac,
on the free edges of numerous mesenteric plates.51 Gruided by these
considerations, Professor Huxley suggested the union of the Lucer-
nariadae and Phanerocarpse into a single order, bearing the name of

49 Or Beclierpolypen. See his essay — Ueber die Morphologie und die Ver-
wandtschaftsverhaltnisse der wirbellosen Thiere, 1848, p. 20. The name he after-
wards changed to Calycozoa. Leuckart, who includes the Sponges among the
Polypi, divides this class into three groups, Calycozoa, Anthozoa, and Porifera.
(Vid. Bericht in Wiegmann's Arch.)

50 Lectures (sup. cit.), pp. 566-7, June 7, 1856.

51 In a valuable memoir by Professor Allman on the structure of Carduella,
(Q. J. M. S. I860), a genus closely allied to and previously confounded with Lucer-
naria proper, the precise relations of the body-partitions, polypite, and reproductive
organs are very carefully illustrated aud described. Professor Allman, however, is
of opinion that the Lucerriariadsa rank nearer to the Gymnophthalmatous (Crypto-
carpse) than to the Steganophthalmatous division of the Discophora. But those
parts of the umbrella in Carduella which he considers to be the homologues of the
nectocalycine veil of the Cryptocarpae, namely, the marginal lobes reflected inwards
so as to roof in its four outer canals, ought surely to be rather regarded as corre-
sponding with structures of a like nature, surrounding the open edge of the disc in
many free-swimming forms of Phanerocarpa?. The development of the umbrella of
Lucemaria has not yet, it is true, been made the subject of direct observation, but
its structural identity with what appears to be the corresponding organ in Hydra-
tuba, whose development is so well known, leaves little room for doubt that the one
is indeed homologous with the other, both being alike dissimilar to the swimming-
bell of the Cryptocarpae, the formation of which takes place in so obviously different
a manner.

LITERATURE OF TIIE SUB-KINGDOM CCELEXTEHATA. 429

Lueernariada?, as distinct from such of the Crypt ocai'im' as mnv here-
after seem worthy of being placed in an ordinal group, to which may
be applied the title of Medusida?.

The position of the Lueernariada' faeing thus defined, a few-
words may now he said concerning another group »»•' Cu'lrnteratn,
as to tlic nearest affinities of which much needless uueertainl v ami
difference of opinion still seems to prevail; namely, the Ctenophora.
Many years ago, De Blainville,53 followed by Quoy et Gaiinai-d,-^
auggested that their true place was in the Molluscous sub-kingdom,
of which, in 1S51, Yogt54 constituted them a class, in close proximity
to the Tunicata. But this view of their affinities met with little
encouragement. Nevertheless, it contained one slight element of
truth, in so far as it denied the close relationship of these animals to
the Siphonophora and Discophora, with which most zoologists, mis-
led by their transparent gelatinous aspect and free oceanic mode of
life, have long continued to associate them. Preferable seems the
opinion of Leuckart, J. V. Cams, Gegenbaur, and Sars, who elevate the
Ctenophora to the rank of a distinct class of Ccelenterata, equivalent
to the Polypi and Hydromedusae. For, in truth, the Ctenophora, as
Prey and Leuckart55 plainly hinted in the year 1847, come nearer to
the first of these two classes than to the latter. These writers com-
pare the structure of Pleurobrackia with that of Actinia, indicating
the existence of some fundamental points of similarity between them.
But these excellent suggestions were permitted to remain unheeded
until, in 1856, they were restated by Huxley,56 who, clearly perceiving
the strong arguments in favour of such a step, united the Ctenophora
and Polypes into one class, to which he gave the name of Actinozoa.
A brief anatomical comparison of the genera mentioned above,
selected as accessible representatives of the two groups thus brought
together, may serve to place in its proper light the intimate nature
of the systematic relationship subsisting between them.

Pirst, on comparing the nutrient systems of Actinia and Pleuro-
hrachia^ " the digestive sacs of the two organisms are clearly seen
" to correspond ; in form, in relative size, and mode of communication
" with the somatic cavity. The funnel and apical canals58 of Pleuro-
" brachia, though more distinctly marked out, are the homologues of
" those parts of the general cavity which in Actinia are central in
" position, and underlie the free end of the digestive sac. So, also,

52 Manuel, &c. pp. 143 and 641.

53 Zoologie, Voyage dc 1' Astrolabe, Tom. 4, p. 3G.
51 Zoologischc Briefe, Band I. p. 254.

55 Beitriige, &c. passim.

56 Lectures, p. 621, June 21, 1856.

57 Cydippe of Eschscholtz (1829) and of most subsequent -writers ; but the name
Plmrobrachia, proposed by Fleming in 1828, has the priority.

58 The two short canals opening directly from the funnel.

430 EEVIEWS.

" the paragastric59 and radial60 canals may be likened to those lateral
" portions of the somatic cavity of Actinia which are not included
" between the mesenteries. Lastly, the ctenophoral61 canals of
" Pleurohrachia and the somatic chambers of Actinia appear to be
" truly homologous, the chief difference between the two forms being
" that, while in the latter the body-chambers are wide and separated
" by very thin partitions, they are in Pleurobracliia reduced to the
" condition of tubes ; the mesenteries which intervene becoming very
" thick and gelatinous, so as to constitute, indeed, the principal bulk
" of the body."62 Between the tentacles of Actinia and Pleurobrachia
there exist, as Professor Huxley has stated, no greater differences
than those which distinguish the same organs in Diphyes and Hydra :
moreover, in some Ctenophora tentacles are absent.

The oceanic habit of the Ctenophora may be paralleled in certain
genera of Zoantharia closely allied to Actinia, while their apical
canals are to some extent represented by the posterior somatic open-
ing in Peachia and JPhilomedusa, or even by the multiple pores of
CoraUium. The prolongation of the somatic cavity into a number of
tubes is seen in several Alcyonaria, with which order the Ctenophora
further correspond in the numerical proportion of their parts. The
Ctenophora may, therefore, fairly be viewed as an ordinal group of
Actinozoa, from the other members of which class their curious loco-
motive bands, thick gelatinous outer layer, nervous system and organ
of sense, readily serve to distinguish them.

If the view here taken of the systematic position of the Cteno-
phora be accepted, all Coelenterate forms admit of being arranged
under two classes, of which one is equivalent to the Hydromedusa>
of Vogt, together with the Lucernariada?, while in the other may be
placed the true Actinoid polypes (Zoantharia and Alcyonaria) and
the Ctenophora. Eor the first of these groups, the name Hydrozoa,
as suggested by Mr. Huxley,63 seems preferable in many ways to the
terms Hydromedusae or Hydroidea, which some have endeavoured
to establish in its stead. For the second class, the parallel designation
of Actinozoa,64 proposed by the same writer, may with equal pro-
prietv be adopted.
— —

59 The two canals which, issuing from the funnel, run parallel to the sides of
the digestive sac.

60 The canals which, with their branches, serve to connect the funnel and the
ctenophoral vessels, next mentioned.

61 The eight longitudinal canals whose courses coincide with those of the eight
rows of locomotive combs.

62 Greene, op. s. cit. p. 146.

63 Lectures, sup. cit. Kymer Jones, in 1847, restricts this term to a sub-class
containing only the genus Hydra ; in 1855, he extends it so as to include in one
group all the Acalephse of Eschscholtz, together witli the Hydrozoa of Owen.

64 Bronn, op. s. cit. applies this name to all the Radiata ( Ccelenterata Echino-
dermata), following De Blainville, who used the same term in a somewhat similar
signification.

LITERATURE OF THE SUB-KINGDOM CffiLENTERATA. LSI

The class Hydrozoa (i, e. animals whose type is the genus Hydra)
will include seven orders, viz. —

Order 1. Hydridje (= Hydrina of Ehrenbcrg). — Hydra itself
is the sole representative of this division.

Order 2. Coryxtd.e or Tubularid.e (= Tubularina of Ehrcn-
berg). — Here are placed those fixed Hydrozoa which want "hydro-
thecae," or polype cells, the distinctive structural feature of

Order o. Sebtttlabijxs! (= Sertularina of Ehrenberg).

Order 4. CALYCornoitiDiE. — In this order, the name of which
was first suggested byLeuckart, are placed such of the Siphonophora
as do not possess an air-vesicle and float, the presence of which dis-
tinguishes the members of the next group,

Order 5. Physopiioridj;.

Order 6. Medusid.e. — Such CryptocarpaB (for example, Cunina)^
as appear to be the direct offspring of forms resembling themselves,
together with many others whose genesis is unknown — i. e. which
have not yet been proved to be merely the free reproductive buds of
other Hydrozoa — may for the present find their best place in this
order.

Order 7. Lucerxaridje. — The family Lucernariadre of Johnston,
in addition to the Phanerocarpa? of Eschscholtz, belongs, as above
stated, to this group.

The second class, Actinozoa (i. e. animals typified by Actinia),
divides itself into four orders : —

Order 1. Zoaxtiiaria. — This group includes all the Polypes so
designated by Milne Edwards, save those wdiich are placed in the
following order.

Order 2. Eugosa. — The four extinct families of Sclerodermic
Corals, associated under this name by Milne Edwards with the
Zoantharia proper, may on just grounds be elevated to the rank of a
separate order, distinguished by the tetrameral arrangement of their
(in general well developed) septal system from the members of the
preceding division, whose septa and tentacles are usually some mul-
tiple of five or six. In the numerical proportion of their parts, there-
fore, the Eugosa differ from the Zoantharia, and resemble the two
remaining orders of Actinozoa.

Order 3. Alcyoxaria. — A sharply- defined group, the pofypes of
which always present eight pinnate tentacnla.

Order 4. Ctexophora.

Sub-kingdom CCELENTEEATA.

Animals whose alimentary canal freely communicates with the
somatic cavity.

Substance of the body made up of two foundation membranes,

65 For a very recent addition to our knowledge of the life-history of this genus,
see Fritz Miiller on Cunina Eollikeri, n. s., inWiegmann's Arch. 1861, p. 42.
VOL. I. — X. H. R. 3 K

432

REVIEWS.

an outer or ectoderm, and an inner or endoderm, which correspond,
in mode of growth, with the primitive layers of the germ.

No distinct neural and haemal regions. A nervous system absent
in most.

Peculiar urticating organs, or thread cells, usually present.

Class 1.

Hydrozoa.

Coelenterata, in which the wall
of the digestive sac is not sepa-
rated from that of the somatic
cavity, and the reproductive or-
gans are external.

Order

„

1.— Htdeidje }

2.— Corynid^: > G6
3. — Serttjlarid^ )

4.— CALYCOPIIORLDiE \ 6?

5. — Physophoridje }
6. — Medusiiwe68

7. — LuCERNARLDiE. 69

Class 2.

ACTINOZOA.

Coelenterata, in which the Avail
of the digestive sac is separated
from that of the somatic cavity
by an intervening space, sub-
divided into chambers by a series
of vertical partitions, on the faces
of which the reproductive organs
are developed.

Order 1. — Zoaotharia70
„ 2. — Eugosa
„ 3. — Alcyonaria71
„ 4.— Ctenophora.72

66 Exoarii, Rapp, 1829; Zoocorallia oligactinia, IBIW&ib&eg, 1834; Dimorphcea,
Ehrenberg, 1836 ; Sertulairiens, Audonin et Milne Edwards, 1836 ; Hydroida,
Johnston, 1836; Nudibracbiata, Farre, 1837; Polypiaria, Gray, 1842; Hydrozoa,
Owen, 1843 ; Hydroidea, Dana, 1846 ; Hydraria, Milne Edwards, 1850 and 57;
Hydriformia, Van der Hoeven, 1856 ; Hydras, Bronn, 1859.

67 Acalephes Hydrostatiques (with PorpHa and Velella), Cuvier, 1830; Siphono-
phora, EscliscJwltz, 1829; Physogrades, Diphyes, et Chondrogrades, De Blainville,
1834 ; Schwimmpolypen or Hydroidea nechalca (besides Porpita and Velella),
Kolliher, 1853.

68 Cryptocarpee, Eschseholtz, 1829 ; Gymnophthalmata, Forbes, 1848 ; Craspe-
dota, Gegenbaur, 1857. f

69 This oi'deris divided into three families: Luccrnariadse, Pelagidas, and Rhizo-
stomidse. The synonyms of Lucernariadse {Johnston) are as follow: — Cylicozoa or
Calycozoa, Leuckart, 1848; Podactinaria, Milne Edwards, 1850 and 57. The two
other families correspond to Phanerocarpse of Eschseholtz, 1829; Medusidae and
Rhizostomidse, Brandt, 1833 ; Rhizostouieae, Lesson, 1843 ; Steganophthalmata,
Forbes, 1848 ; Discophora, Kolliher, 1853 ; Acraspeda, Gegenbaur, 1857; Disco-
phora, Agassiz, 1860.

70 Helianthoida (minus Lucernariadse), Johnston, 1836 ; Zoantharia (minus
Rugosa), Milne Edwards, 1836; Actinaria, Dana, 1846.

71 Alcyonaria of Milne Edwards, also of Dana ; Zoophytaires on Ctenoceres,
De Blainville, 1834; Octactinia, Ehrenberg, 1834; Asteroida, Johnston, 1836.

72 Ctenophora of Eschseholtz, 1829 ; Beroes ou Ciliobranches (Ciliograda), De
Blainville, 1834.

433

XLIY. — Contributions To the Natural History of the Unhid
States of Ameuita. By Louis Agassiz. Vol. III. Boston, 1SG0.

The third volume of Professor Agassiz' greal work, or rather series
of works, on the Natural History of the United States, not many
months since issued to its numerous subscribers, contains the com-
mencement of his "Second Monograph," which treats of the 63asG < I'
Acalephs.

On the title-page it is stated that the contents of* this Monograph
will be arranged under live Parts, viz. : — 1. Acalephs in general. —
2. Ctenophora?. — 3. Discophorae. — i. HydrmdaB. — 5. Homologies of
the Radiata; the whole to be illustrated with forty-six plates.

In the volume before us the First of these Parts is brought to u
conclusion ; the second, nearly so. Prom a perusal of the table ot
contents alone, it might appear that this Part, likewise, had been en
tirely finished, but, in the text, Professor Agassiz alludes, more than
once, to various observations of his own on the development of the
Ctenophora, the promised details of which are not given. But it
may be that the author intends to notice these, not at the end of the
Second Part, but rather in the course of the Fifth, when the homolo-
gies of all the Radiata come to be finally considered. We propose,
therefore, for the present, to postpone our remarks on Part II.,
hoping, in a future number, to discuss in some detail the writings, not
only of Professor Agassiz, but also of various other naturalists, on a
group so worthy of special treatment as the Ctenophora, the study
of whose structure and development has yielded, within the last ten
years, results of greater value to the skilled investigator than those
which he could boast of having gained, up to that period, from the
time that Zoology became a science.

The First Part of the Second Monograph, with its 152 quarto
pages, includes two chapters, of which the first is entitled "Historv
of our Knowledge of the Acalephs," while the second treats of
" Acalephs as a Class."

The subject-matter of the first chapter, containing but 35 pages,
is discussed under the five following Sections : —

Section 1. — Period of Aristotle and the Roman Naturalists.
„ 2. — The naturalists of the sixteenth and seventeenth
centuries.
3.— The naturalists of the eighteenth century.
„ 4. — The systematic writers and anatomists.
„ 5. — Embryological researches upon Acalephs.

Its contents will be read with much interest, especially by those
who are not well versed in this department of Zoology, to whom the
large amount of historical information which it embodies is presented
in a form at once pleasing ami instructive, while the numerous

434 REVIEWS.

bibliographical citations scattered throughout its notes cannot fail to
prove useful for reference, even in the hands of experts.

But the second chapter, on Acalephs as a Class, more fully de-
mands our attention. The nine Sections into which it is divided are
named as follows : —

Section 1. — Mode of determining the natural limits of the class.

„ 2. — The different animals referred to the type of Eadiata.

„ 3. — The classes of Eadiata.

„ 4. — Morphology and nomenclature.

„ 5. — Individuality and specific difference among Acalephs.

„ 6. — Natural limits of the class of Acalephs.

„ 7. — Gradation among Acalephs.

„ 8. — Succession of Acalephs.

„ 9. — Classifications of Acalephs.

We have quoted the names of these Sections at length, not be-
cause it is our intention to notice each, seriatim, but from a desire to
afford the reader, who is not already in possession of Professor
Agassiz' work, a faithful transcript of its general contents. This
having been done, we shall, without following to its extremest details
the arrangement which he has laid down, choose from the entire
chapter such portions of its contents as seem best fitted for comment,
selecting alike those on which we agree with, or are constrained to
differ from, their distinguished author.

First, then, we find that Professor Agassiz is in direct opposition
to those naturalists who, following Prey and Leuckart, have pro-
posed to place in a distinct sub -kingdom, under the name of Coelen-
terata, those so-called Badiate animals in which a well marked body-
cavity communicates freely with the digestive sac, whensoever the
latter appears distinct. He maintains " that it is an exaggeration of
their affinities to unite, as Leuckart has done, and as most G-erman
naturalists now do, the Polyps and Acalephs in one and the same
great division under the name of Coelenterata." — " I shall presently
show [he adds] that all the true Polyps and all the true Acalephs
may naturally be grouped with the two characteristic representatives
of their respective classes, alluded to in the preceding section ; and
that, in connection with the Echinoderms, they constitute one of the
four great types of the animal kingdom, characterized by a peculiar
plan of their structure, founded upon the idea of radiation ; and that
the anatomical differences exhibited by the Echinoderms do not
justify us in considering them as a distinct type. The latter are, in
reality, only another class of Eadiata, as a comparison of any of the
flat Echinoids, such as the Echinarachnius, with an ordinary Medusa,
say the Aurelia, readily shows ; Echinus being, as it were, a Medusa,
the soft disk of which is charged with limestone particles."* And, in

* Pp. 40-1.

AGASSIZ. NATURAL HISTORY OF T1IE UNITED STATES. 435

the following paragraphs/ he more fully exhibits his views on the
same subject i —

"In uniting the Acalephs and Polyps into one primary division
distinct from the Echinoderms, Leuckari has overlooked the general

homologies uliicli unite the Echinoderms with the Acalephs and
Polyps, and has paid no attention to the Acalephian character of the
embryo of a large number of Echinoderms. There is no feature
more striking in all these animals, in the Polyps and Acalephs on the
one side and the Echinoderms on the other, than the radiated arrange-
ment of their parts. A comparison of Echinarachnius witli Polyclonia
and JEquorea, and of the latter with Actinia, can leave no doubt upon
this question; and since all Polyps can easily be reduced to the type
of Actinia, as well as all Acalephs to that of JEquorea, and all Behi-
noderms to that of Echinarachnius or of Aster ias, it must be ad-
mitted that the plan of structure is the same in all these animals.
They are built upon the idea of radiation ; that is to say, all their
organs are arranged around a centre, at which the -mouth is placed,
and diverge towards the periphery, to converge again at an opposite
pole. But this is not the whole : all the organs of this structure are
homologous. The chambers between the radiating partitions of the
Actinia correspond to the radiating tubes of JEquorea, and these,
again, to the ambulacral system of the Echinoderms ; and the mar-
ginal tentacles of the Actinia correspond to the marginal tentacles of
the Acalephs, and appear as ambulacral tubes in the Echinoderms,
under the various forms of seeming gills around the mouth of Echi-
noids, or of seeming gills in the rosette of Clypeaster, or of branch-
ing tentacles and ambulacral suckers in the Holothurians. The
identity of all these parts I shall have an opportunity of showing
hereafter.

The central cavity, in open communication with the radiating
chambers in Polyps, is closed in Acalephs, and communicates only
through narrow openings with the radiating tubes ; while in Echino-
derms there arises a distinct alimentary canal, which is, however,
still in direct communication with the ambulacral system through
a network of anastomoses, about which I shall also have more
to say hereafter. The ocelli at the base of the tentacles, which
in Polyps are mere pigment cells, appear like modified tentacles in
the higher Medusa*, while they are still connected with real tentacles
in the lower ones; in Echinoderms they appear again, in the same
relation with the ambulacral system and the terminal odd ambu-
lacral sucker, as they are with the tentacles in Acalephs. The
sexual organs are upon the sides of the radiating cavities ; that is,
upon the edge of the partitions in the Polyps, upon the sides of the
radiating tubes in the Acalephs, and alternating \x\{\\ the ambulacra
in Echinoderms, — everywhere in a homologous position and re-
lation." *

* P. 65.

436 heviews.

Again and again throughout the course of the same chapter Pro-
fessor Agassiz insists strongly against the evils which must accrue to
systematic zoology from a confusion between the fundamental dif-
ferences in plan of structure observable amongst animals, and those
minor differences having reference to the various modes in which the
execution of the same plan may be carried out. But of what avail
is it to enunciate this general proposition, the truth of which all
intelligent naturalists, familiar with the principles of Von Baer.
have long been accustomed to admit, if, at the same time, he fail to
perceive the true import of those great anatomical features, which
distinguish the group of Coelenterata ? If these be not enough to
constitute a distinct plan of structure, and not merely a variation in
the mode of execution of some other plan, it may be asked what
amount of morphological peculiarity can be considered sufficient for
this purpose ? Or do sub-kingdoms exist only in the imaginations of
Cuvier and his successors, and ought the entire animal kingdom, as
in the time of Linnreus, to be resolved at once into classes ? In thus
refusing to acknowledge so natural an assemblage as the Coelenterata,
Professor Agassiz, as he himself with characteristic candour admits,
entertains views adverse to those of many G-erman, and, we may add,
of many English naturalists. Even Professor Milne Edwards, who,
occupying as he does, the distinguished position of successor to
Cuvier, might well be excused were he to cherish a prejudiced and
too literal adherence to the system of his great predecessor, though
he does not elevate the Coelenterata to the rank of a sub-kingdom,
goes so far as to regard them, with their several classes, on a par
with the single class of Echinoderms, the two groups, being consti-
tuted, in his recent arrangement, equal and primary divisions of the
I£adiata.#

But it should not be forgotten that the definition of the sub-
kingdom Coelenterata includes another clause in addition to that
specified by Erey and Leuckart. It is now many years since the
body- sub stance in all these animals has been shown by Professor
Huxley, (who, we believe, first drew attention to the fact), to be re-
solvable into two foundation membranes, an outer and an inner, for
which he proposed the names of ectoderm and endoderm. The subse-
quent researches of many naturalists have tended more and more to
confirm this generalization. And if, by the light of our present
knowledge, we carefully peruse the works of those older writers who
acquired by patient investigation the useful faculties of seeing only
what they ought to have seen and recording only what they saw, we
shall not fail to perceive that they too were not without their own
presentiment of a truth which appears to us of such importance.
In their thread- cells, also, the Coelenterata, exhibit another structural
peculiarity, not unworthy of consideration.

To all" this, however, Professor Agassiz replies that there is a

* Histoire Nnturelle des Coralliaircs, Tom. I., 857, pp. 3-4.

AOASSIZ. NATURAL HISTORY OF Till: [JUTTED STATES. 437

plan of struct ure. namely, the radiate, common to the Polypes, Aca-
Icphs, and Eeliinoderms, and that all anatomical differences which
may exist between the two first of these classes, on the one hand,
and the Echinodennata, on the other, arc of a wholly subservient
character to the tact of their common radiation. — "There is no fea-
ture more striking in all these animals, in the Polyps and Acalcphs
on the one side and the Eeliinoderms on the other,' than the radiated
arrangement of their parts." Yet it may be doubted if even the
Eehinodermata are truly radiated. However, this is a point on whieh
at present we shall not dwell, but proceed at once to question the pro-
priety of applying the name Kadiata to many Ccelentcrate organisms.
The mode of attachment of the appendages in various genera of
Siphonophora is most assuredly not radiate.* Of the bilateral sym-
metry of the Actinoid Polypes and Ctenophora, Professor Aga^siz
himself reminds us. This, however, cannot be said to admit of more
than distant comparison with those indications of right and left
symmetry in certain Eeliinoderms, which have been pointed out by
J. Midler and Sars.f

The resemblance, in outward aspect, between the adult forms of
the Ctenophora and the free-swimming larvae of most Eeliinoderms,
must be considered as wholly superficial and delusive in its character,
and as presenting in no wise that deep morphological significance
which Professor Agassiz would fain assign it. Elsewhere j he has
expressed his regret that Johannes Miiller, while prosecuting his
famous researches on the life-history of the Echinoderms, did not
avail himself of such excellent opportunities for tracing out, in com-
plete detail, the likeness between their larval forms and the Beroid
Medusa?. But the great anatomist of Berlin had too much real work
on his hands to find time for the pursuit of what to him must have
appeared no better than the vain shadow of a ehhnaera. Even in
the arrangement of its locomotive bands the young Ecliinoderm is
seen to contrast markedly with the Ctenophorid ; and in all other
essential features, such as histological differentiation of the body-
substance, structure of the digestive canal, and relation thereto of
the general cavity, the differences between the two organisms are
so great as almost to preclude the possibility of instituting a com-
parison between them.

Nor have we read without surprise the statement of Professor
Agassiz, that the chambers between the radiating partitions of
Actinia and the radiating tubes of jEquorea correspond to the am-
bulacral vessels of the Eeliinoderms. The apparatus last mentioned
would appear to be without homologue among the members of the
Coelenterate sub-kingdom, while the radiating vessels of JEquorea,

* See Huxley's Oceanic Hydrozoa, p. 8.

t Consult the abstract of a recent memoir, by Sars, given in A. N. II., August
1861, p. 190.

J Trans. Amer. Acad. May 1849, p. 366.

438 REVIEWS.

or body-chambers of Actinia, parts of the general cavity in these
animals, trnly correspond with the perivisceral cavity of the Echi-
noderms, within which the nutrient fluid circulates. And in stating
this conclusion, supported alike by the facts of structure and develop-
ment, we find our own opinions in complete accordance with those
entertained by all who have occupied themselves in any careful
degree with such considerations. The erroneous view formerly held
on this subject, and which unhappily yet lingers in some elementary
works, was altogether of an opposite character, mistaking, as it did,
the ambulacral apparatus of the Echinoderms for a true sanguineous
system. Parts really homologous to ambulacral vessels must be
sought, not among the structures of the Coelenterata, but in the
canals of the water- vascular system of the Eotifera and Worms. The
assertion that " the central cavity, in open communication with the
radiating chambers in Polyps, is closed in Acalephs, and communi-
cates only through narrow openings with the radiating tubes" con-
veys, by implication, an exaggerated view of what is, in truth, a very
feeble difference of degree ; all the parts here mentioned being, as we
have already said, but portions of the same great body-cavity. The
alimentary canal of an Echinoderm cannot, with strict propriety, be
considered homologous to any organ performing a like function
among the Coelenterata, seeing that its mode of development and rela-
tive position to the general cavity are so essentially dissimilar.

The following is the arrangement of Eadiata adopted by Professor
Agassiz. The names of the several orders and classes, as we have
sought here to present them, follow one another in what he considers
to be their gradation, or relative rank, the highest appearing first in
the descending scale.*

Sub-kingdom . . BADIATA.

Class I.-ECHINODEEMATA.
Order 1. — Holothueoid^.

„ 2. ECHINOIDJE.

„ 3. — AsTERionxa;.
„ 4. — Ceinoid^i.
Class II.— ACALEPHS.
Order 1. — Ctenophoeje.

„ 2. — DlSCOPHOEiE.

„ 3. — HYDEOinjs.
Class III. -POLYPI.

Order 1. — Halcto^oid^e.
„ 2.— AcTiNorcyE.

As the Echinodermata are but incidentally alluded to in the

* In compiling this table we have availed ourselves of the author's Essay on
Classification, in the first volume of these Contributions.

AGASSIZ. NATURAL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 139

present Monograph, it is not necessary Hint we should stay to notice
them. Turning to the Acaleplue, we lind. first, an order Ctennphora?
equivalent to the group so termed by E srlisclmltz. The second order,
Discophoras corresponding to the Plianerorarpa' ol' t lie same writer,
has been adopted, as such, from Kolliker. The third order, Ilydroida-,
includes not only the forms so termed by .Johnston, bu1 likewise the
Cn ptorarpa* and Siphonophora of Eschscholtz, together with the
genus Lucernaria. The sub-divisions oRhc class Polypi require here
no comment.

In regarding the Ctenophora? as a group of equal import ancc to
the Diseophora?, Professor Agassiz expresses his dissent from the
views of Milne Edwards, one of the most eminent among original
investigators of this group, which, nevertheless, in his recent arrange-
ment of the Acalephs, occupies a somewhat subordinate position.
So that the opinion of Professor Agassiz on the systematic value of
the Ctenophora? may be viewed as intermediate between that of the
French, naturalist, and those who, like Leuckart, Gregenbaur, and
Sars, would consider these animals as a distinct class of Ccelenterata.
In the Section on ' Gradation among Acalephs' it is added that " the
Ctenophora?, as the highest order in the class of Acalephs, correspond
to the Echinoderms, and especially to the Holothurioids, the
highest order of the highest class among Radiates." In a previous
Section, Professor Agassiz contends against the recommendation of
Quoy and Vogt, to remove these organisms to the sub-kingdom
Mollusca. But the close affinity of the Ctenophora? to the true
Polypes, as suggested in 1847 by Erey and Leuckart, is not thought
worthy of detailed discussion.

The recognition of the Phanerocarpa? as a separate order cannot
but be received with satisfaction by those who, like ourselves, have
sought duly to estimate the essential nature of the characters which
distinguish these forms from the Cryptocarpa?. Such characters,
for the most part purely morphological, would hold equally good
even if those singular genetic phenomena, which unite together many
of the Cryptocarpa? and the Hydroids, yet remained to be discovered.

"With pleasure, also, we find Professor Agassiz supporting the
opinion that Lucernaria is not a true polype, but rather, allied to
the Acalepha?. He places the genus in his third order, Hydroida\
But its nearer relationship to the Phanerocarpa? does not altogether
escape his notice, for he expressly adds that "their resemblance to
the young Medusa? is very great, especially during the incipient stage
of their Strobila state of development."

The last order of Acalepha? in the system (^ Professor Agassiz
forms a group of very considerable extent, in our opinion of more
than ordinal value. In addition to the genus Hydra, the fixed
Hydrozoa, the Siphonophora, the Cryptocarpa?, and Lucernaria, it
includes the Tabulate, Tubulose, and Rugose Corals, which Milne
Edwards and most other zoologists have hitherto associated with the
Polypi. "With reference to the systematic position of the Eugosa
vol. I. — x. H. r. 3 L

410 REVIEWS.

Professor Agassiz lias not yet finally decided, but he entertains little
doubt that the large group of Tabulata ought no longer to be kept
apart from the Hydroids proper. This view, apparently so heterodox,
is, according to Professor Agassiz, sufficiently sustained by the results
of some recent observations which he has made on the soft parts of
the living Millepora. The details of these researches have not yet
been communicated at length, so that the important enquiry which
they suggest to the systematic zoologist cannot now be more than
referred to. We may add, however, that the figures of the animal
of Millepora alcicomis, which Professor Agassiz has here given, less
closely resemble Actinoid polypes than the polypites of Hydr actinia >
to which genus he deems the Tabulata to be most intimately
related.

In accordance with recent investigations, Professor Agassiz does
not dispute the possible existence of a group of Medusid forms,
distinct from those Cryptocarpae which have been shown to be but
the free reproductive bodies of the Hydroida. But to the systematist
whose mind has been fully made up on the fundamental principles of
his science, the existence of such a group makes comparatively little
difference, howsoever significant it may justly seem to the student of
animal development.

" Since the free Medusae known to originate from Hydroids all
belong to the type of the Discophorcs Cryptocarpae of Eschscholtz,
the Gymnopht/ialmata of Forbes, or Craspedota of Gregenbaur, there
is presumptive evidence that the final investigation of the true
affinities of these Medusae will lead to a natural association of all
those which are really and closely related to one another, to the ex-
clusion of the possible foreign admixtures now left in this group,
and that such a natural group will in the end embrace all the
Medusae originating from Hydroids. It is also possible, however,
that such a natural group of Medusae may embrace genera under-
going a direct metamorphosis from the egg to the perfect Medusa
without intervening Hydra stock, as we already know that there are
higher Discophorae, such as Pelagia, which reproduce themselves
without passing through the Strobila state. But this would not
alter the case of the affinity of such Medusae : it would only show
that the natural group to which they belong exhibits a wider range
in its modes of development. The systematic position of any
Medusa must be determined by an investigation of its special
structure, and if there are any Medusae, not arising from Hydroids,
but growing up directly from eggs to their permanent form, and
presenting the same special structure as those that arise from
Hydroids, there is no reason why they should be separated. Upon
this view we shall hereafter consider the affinities of the iEquoridae,
the mode of development of which is not yet fully ascertained, and

AGASSIZ. NATTJEAL HISPTOBT OF THE TOUTED STATES. ill

those of the JEginida*, some of which are known to undergo a direct
metamorphosis."*

" Considering the mode of reproduction of the Acalephs in
genera], the highest Hydroids would, of course, be those in which
the medusoid elements prevail, and the lowest, those in which the
hydroid elements are most prominent. AVe have, therefore, to
inquire, first, whether there are any genuine naked-eyed Medusas
which do not originate from Hydra), in order to answer a question
already raised respecting the true limits of the order of Hydroids,
and the true position of the ^Equorida) and jEginidae.

" There are iEginida?, unquestionably, which undergo a direct
metamorphosis, and it is probable that this is the case with all of
them. But are the JEginida? genuine naked-eyed Medusa?, or a low
type of Discophora? allied to the Charybdeida? ? My knowledge of
this family is too limited to enable me to speak confidently upon that
point ; but I am inclined to consider them as belonging rather to the
Discophora? proper than to the Hydroids. In the first place, the
iEginida? have no radiating chymiferous tubes, as all true naked-eyed
Medusa? have ; but instead of them there arise broad, flat pouches
from the main cavity, extending towards the margin of the disk, as
in Ephyra, the young of Aurelia and Cyanea, and as in the adult of
the latter, and of many other genera of Discophora? proper. The
iEginida? have no circular chymiferous tube, as all true naked-eyed
Medusa? have. Again, the tentacles of the iEginida? are not strictly
marginal, and, in the absence of a circular tube, cannot be closely con-
nected with it as is the case in all true naked-eyed Medusa?, but are
in direct communication with the radiating pouches of the main
cavity, as in Pelayia and Cyanea. If, then, for these reasons the
yEginidae should be associated with the higher Discophora?, instead of
occupying a place among the naked-eyed Medusa^, the importance
attached by Gregenbaur to the marginal seam of the umbrella, as a
distinctive character of the lower Discophora? would be greatly
lessened ; and I rather think rightly so, for many of the higher Dis-
cophora?, and among them our common Aurelia, have the margin
of their umbrella not only very thin, but turned inward and down-
ward as in all Craspedota, and their tentacles arise between indenta-
tions of the disc, at some distance from its margin, as is the case in
the iEginida?.f

"As to the iEquorida?, I have no doubt that they are genuine
Hydroids, though 1 have not been able to trace with certainty the
origin of the Jkquorea of our c^^st to any true Hydroid. But the
structure of JEquorea, in its adult Medusa state, is so strictly homo-
logous to that of all other naked-eyed Medusa?, that, even if it were

* P. 108.

f In his recently discovered genus T«»)o<j<-:, closely allied to Charybda, the pre-
sence of a veil is pointed out by Fritz Mullcr. (Halle, Al»h, 18-50.)

442 KEVIEWS.

ascertained that it undergoes a direct metamorphosis from the egg to
the perfect Medusa, I would not hesitate to consider it as a member
of the order of Hydroids, since it has simple radiating chymiferous
tubes, a circular tube, and marginal tentacles closely connected with
it, and provided with mere pigment specks upon their base."*

"With the above statements, in so far as they tend to refute the
widely-prevalent error that the affinity between these Acalephs and
the fixed Hydroids rests solely on embryological evidence, we desire
fully to concur.

In the Section on Morphology and Nomenclature,! _ Professor
Agassiz introduces certain new terms, explanatory of his peculiar
views on the Eadiata in general, and the class Acalephae in particular.
To the entire body- wall of a radiated animal he applies the designa-
tion of spherosome, for " it requires [he says] no formidable stretch of
the imagination to reduce any single Polyp, or any Acaleph, or any
Echinoderm, to a spheroidal form. Indeed, the sphere is the essential
form of all Eadiates, — not the mathematical sphere, but the organic
sphere, loaded in different directions, according to the peculiarities of
the subordinate groups of this type." " Considering the plan of
their structure, we have already seen that there exists in all of them
one axis and centre of radiation, around which all their parts are
symmetrically arranged in a radiating and concentric order, even
though that axis or centre of structure be not the centre of figure or
form. At one end of this axis we invariably find the so-called mouth
or actinostome, while the opposite end of the alimentary canal may
have an excentric position." That side or pole of the sphere at
which the actinostome occurs is termed actinal ; the opposite side or
pole, abactinal. For the " homological segments," or "identical ele-
ments," which together make up the spherosome, the title of sphero-
tneres is appropriated.

The names Planula, Hydra, Scyphostoma, Strolila, JEphyra, and
Medusa, taken from Sars and others, are suggested as well suited for
distinguishing the principal forms of simple Acalephs, at the several
stages of their growth. The term Hydra, after the manner of
Dalyell, is also used as a synonym of the common nouns polype and
polypite. "When a composite community of Acalephs consists of a
number of such Hydrae united by a connecting stem, the whole mass
constitutes an Hydrarium. Should bunches of Medusae be budded
forth either by any of the Hydrae or their common trunk, each of
these groups becomes a Medusarium, and the compound organism
which results, including both Hydrae and Medusae, " may be called a
Hydro-Medusarium."

* Pp. 119-20.

f The distinction between Nomenclature and Terminology, insisted on by Dr.
"Whewell and others, is not acknowledged by Professor Agassiz.

AGASSIZ. NATURAL III; STORY OF THE UNITED STATES. J 1:>

From the above brief summary of his terminology, we proceed
without abrupt transit ion. 1 o record what Professor A gasslz lias said on
"the question of individuality among Acalrphs." Animal indi-
viduality, he considers, may be manifested after one dr other of l'< .m*
principal modes, differing in degree or kind. Of these the first is
termed hereditary individuality, or " that kind of independent existence
manifested in the successive evolutions of a single egg, producing a
single individual, as is observed in all the higher animals." At'ler
this, " derivative, or consecutive individuality, that kind of indepen-
dence resulting from an individualization of parts of the product of a
single egg." " Next, we must distinguish secondary individuality,
which is inherent in those individuals arising as buds from other
individuals, and remaining connected with them. This condition
prevails in all the immovable Polyparia and Hydraria, and I say in-
tentionally in the immovable ones ; for in the movable communi-
ties, such as Benilla, Pennatula, etc. among Polyps, and all the
Siphonophora among Acalephs, we must still further distinguish
another kind of individuality, which I know not how to designate
properly, unless the name of complex individuality may be applied to
it. In complex individuality a new element is introduced, which is
not noticeable in the former case. The individuals of the comrnunity
are not only connected together, but, under given circumstances, they
act together as if they were one individual, while at the same time
each individual may perform acts of its own."*

The Section on Individuality contains further, indeed is almost
wholly occupied with, a number of iconoclastic paragraphs, in which
Professor Agassiz puts forward, with much boldness and vigour of
language, his objections to the arguments in Mr. Darwin's recent
work on the Origin of Species. These portions of Professor Agassiz's
volume having been elsewheref reprinted in full, and in a very acces-
sible form, we prefer, on the present occasion, to pass them by, rather
than, within our limited space, render them a maimed or too imper-
fect notice. We do this with less reluctance, since our readers may
now peruse for themselves the excellent and impartial essays on Mr.
Darwin's theory by Professor Asa Gray, in which the criticisms of
his illustrious colleague, together with those of other " American
reviewers," receive due consideration. %

The last Section of the First Part, on Classifications of Acalephs,
embodies a detailed abstract, accompanied with a critical commentary,
of the several systems proposed by Lamarck (1801-1G), Peron et
Lesueur (1809), Cuvier (1817-30), Schweigger (1820), Goldfuss
(1820), Chamisso and Eysenhardt (1821), Latreille (1«25), Esch-

* P. 97.

f A. N. H. September, 1860, p. 219.

% Reprinted from the Atlantic Monthly for July, August, and October, 18C0.
London, Trubner and Co. 1861.

444 BE VIEWS.

scholtz (1829), De Blainville (1830-4), Oken (1835), Brandt (1833),
Lesson (1843), Forbes (1848), Lutken (1850), Yogt (1851), Kolli-
ker (1853), Leuckart (1854), Gegenbaur (1856-9), McCrady (1858),
and Huxley (1859), for the arrangement of these animals and their
sub-divisions. Here, as in other parts of the work, the care taken
by Professor Agassiz to master the very extensive bibliography of
his subject has produced results calculated, in some measure, to
diminish the necessity for the repetition of the same labour on the
part of future investigators.

The beautiful plates which served to illustrate Professor Agassiz's
former memoirs on the North American Acalephae,* must be in the
memory of some of our readers. Those which accompany the present
volume, twenty-six in number, are issued in a style no less worthy of
imitation, and, with scarcely an exception, by the same artist, Mr.
Sonrel. He, also, as we are informed in the preface, executed directly
from nature most of the preliminary drawings, in some cases receiving
the assistance of Professor H. J. Clark, who has, in addition, enriched
the text with some special contributions of his own, which much
enhance its value. A number of outline cuts are interspersed
throughout the body of the volume. Of the twenty-six plates, three
only, those on the Ctenophora, have particular reference to the
subject-matter of the third volume; an inconvenient arrangement,
whereby the reader who desires to consult future sections of the same
Monograph must, of necessity, have this volume lying open before
him. We doubt not that it has arisen from a praiseworthy desire on
the part of Professor Agassiz and his publishers to justify, by their
liberality, the cordial support which the work has received from its
American subscribers. Trusting that an early opportunity may be
afforded us of noticing the fourth volume of these ' Contributions,' we
now bring to a conclusion our notice of the third. Whatever comes
from the pen of Professor Agassiz shall receive our welcome and
attentive perusal. And if, at times, we venture to diner from his
conclusions, may we do so with all simplicity and good faith, in the
free spirit of that science which he has cultivated with so much zeal.
Truly the very shortcomings of a writer possessing his honesty and
ability may bear comparison with the excellencies of ordinary men.

* In Trans. Amcr. Acad. 1849.

445

XL V.— Zoological Sketches. By Joseph "Wolf. Made for the
Zoological Society of London, from Animals in thou- Vivarium.
Edited, with Notes, by Philip Lutlc\ Srlaier, M.A., F.K.S., &c,
Secretary to the Society.

Ukder the above title has recently been issued the first volume of a
scries of plates, representing some "of the most rare and interesting
animals which have appeared, or may appear, in the Vivarium of the
Zoological Society of London."

Tit'ty coloured lithographs, of folio size, are comprised in the
thirteen parts, which together make up the volume. Each is de-
voted to a single animal species, of which, however, in some cases,
two or more figures have been introduced. The following is a list
of the several subjects : —

G.
7.

8.
9.

10.

11.
12.

13.
14.
15.

10.
17.
18.

I'J.

20.

21.

22.

23.

24.
2 5.
26.

27.

28.

29.
30.

MAMMALS.

The Chimpanzee {Troglodytes nigcr).

The Pluto Monkey (Cercopithecus
pluto).

The Lion {Felix leo).

The Leopard (Felu leopardus).

The Painted Ocelot (Fclis plcta).

TheEyra {Fells eyra).

The Clouded Tiger (Fells macroce-
lis).

The Serval (Fells servat).

The Egyptian Cat (Fells chaus).

The Caracal [Fells caracal).

The Red Caracal {Felix caracal) .

The Canadian Lynx (Fells canaden-
sis).

The Cheetah [Fells jubata).

The Bassaris (Bassaris astuta).

The Patagonian Skunk [dfephiiis
humbeldtii).

The Grey Fox (Cams azures).

The Syrian Bear ( Ursus syriacus).

The Walrus ( Trichecus rosmurus).

The Wapiti Deer (Cervus canaden-
sis).

The White-tailed Deer (Cervus leu-
curus).

The Eland (Oreas canna).

The Persian Gazelle {Gazella sub-
gut turosa).

The Lcucoryx Antelope [Oryx leu-
cory.r) .

The Punjab Sheep (Oclscycloceros).

The Thar Goat (Capra jemlaica).

The Alpaca (Lama pacos).

The Hippopotamus [Hippopotamus
amphibius).

The South African River Hog (Po-
taviKchoerus africanns).

The Red River Hog [Potamochoerus
penicillatus).

The Great Anteater {Mymtcophaga
jubata).

31. The Thylacine ( Thylaclnus cynoce-

jyhahis).

32. The Tasmanian Wombat (Phascolo-

mys wombat).

BIRDS.

33. The Saker Falcon (Falco sacer).

34. The Greenland Falcon (Falco green-

land lens).

35. The Iceland Falcon {Falco islandi-

cus).

36. The Angolan Vulture (Gypohierax

angolensls).

37. The Chinese Pheasant (Phasianus

torquatus).

38. The Japan Pheasant {Phasianus

verslcolar).

39. Horsfield's Kaleege (Gallophasis

7>0)'sfieldii).

40. The Caspian Snow-Partridge (Te-

traogallus caspius).

41. The Painted Spur-Fowl (Galloper-

dix lunulosa).

42. The American Rhea (Rhea amerl-

cana).

43. The Mooruk (Casuarius benncttl).

44. Mantell's Apteryx (Apteryx man-

telli).

45. The Great Bustard (Otis tarda).

46. The Mantchurian Crane ( Grus vion-

-^tignesi).

47. The Australian Mycteria (Mycteria

australis).

48. The Black-necked Swan (Cygnus

nigricollls).

49. The Ashy-headed Goose ( Chloephaga

pollocephala).

REPTILES.

50. The Green Boa (Xiphosoma eanu

ii um).

446 REVIEWS.

The skill and patience which Mr. Wolf has displayed in his efforts
to render these drawings faithful copies of their living originals
deserve the highest commendation. Li selecting characteristic atti-
tudes of the birds and mammals, carefully preserving the relative
proportions of their different parts, and depicting, with minute
detail, the most striking peculiarities of each, he has here, as in his
previous works, been eminently successful.

On the utility of the entire collection it would be a waste of
words to dwell. Some of the species have never been represented
before ; of others, no better figures are known to us than such as
have been filled up from the imperfect outline sketches of travellers,
too often executed in haste, and under circumstances which rendered
accuracy impossible, or, still worse, the would-be restorations on
paper of Museum specimens already far gone in the last stage of de-
naturalisation : ill-killed, ill-skinned, ill-kept, ill-stretched, and finally,
ill-stuffed. If we except the " ELnowsley Menagerie," prepared many
years since under the auspices of the late Earl of Derby, no work
has ever been published in Britain at all comparable in its aim or
mode of execution to that before us.

Every plate is accompanied with a page of explanatory letter-
press, prepared for the purpose by our colleague, Mr. Sclater. His
object has been to present, in this brief space, a selection of the more
remarkable facts touching the history of the animals figured, their
distribution, economic value, and suitability for acclimatisation. The
various means by which the specimens were obtained for the collec-
tion of the Society, with a few particulars as to their habits in a state
of captivity, have, where such information seemed necessary, been
duly recorded.

Students of the higher Vertebrata, who have had the privilege of
consulting this series, will not be slow on future occasions to turn
again to its pages, whenever their studies demand the employment of
an aid so pleasing in the work of identification. But to a far more
extended class than these it cannot fail to commend itself; to all, in
short, who, with feelings of gratitude, can admire those qualities of
hand and mind which have enabled the artist to embody, in a form
available to others, his own genial appreciation of the finished pro-
ductions of Nature.

!17

(Original $rttrtcs.

XLYI. — Eepokt on Vegetable Paethexogexesis.

The question as to the existence of parthenogenesis in vegetables

has latterly been the subject of much discussion, tnit it is by no
means of modern origin. It has been studied at different times by
numerous botanists ibr pretty nearly 100 years, and after the lapse
of a century the point in dispute seems as far from being decided as
ever. Li England the subject has attracted little attention, although
the most important of all the apparent instances of parthenogenesis,
that namely of Ccelebogync i/icifolia, was first noticed in this country.
A short time since it would have been a work of some labour to have
given any readable account of the question at issue, but the difficul-
ties in the way of doing so have been to a great extent removed by
Dr. Hegel's publication in the Memoirs of the Academy of St. Peters-
burg.* The latter author has given at some length the history of all
the important observations preceding his own, and in the outset of
the present report we wish to acknowledge the assistance we have
derived from Dr. Eegel's Memoir.

Tor some years prior to 1767 the observations of physiological
botanists had been directed to prove the existence of sexes in plants,
and we find the names of Grew, Camerarius, Linnaeus, and Kohlreu-
ter conspicuous amongst the writers upon this subject. In the year
above mentioned (1767) we come upon the writings of Spallanzani,
with whose experiments the question of parthenogenesis, as it exists
at the present day, may be considered to have originated.

In May, 1777, Spallanzani selected two young female plants of
hemp (Cannabis sativa), the sex of which was only just distinguishable.
These were placed in a room facing the south, twenty days before
their flowers opened, and kept enclosed between two window frames.
As a further test, two of the flowering branches of one of the plants
were enclosed in a glass flask, the mouth of which was hermetically
sealed, and all the branches of the latter plant, with the exception of
those in the flask, were cut off. The window frames were kept closed,
and all the plants were carefully examined from time to time, without
a single male organ being detected. After all these precautions the
plants in question, and the particular branches enclosed in the flask,
produced seeds, which afterwards germinated.

A second experiment was made, in which the female plants were
brought into flower six weeks before the time of flowering of the
hemp in the open fields, and similar results were obtained.

* Memoirea de 1'Acaclemie Imperiale rtcs Sciences do St. Petersbourg, VII'
Seric Tome I. No. 2.

VOL. I. — TSf. IT. E. 3 U

448 ORIGINAL ARTICLES.

De Marti* repeated the above experiment, and considered Spal-
lanzani's observations imperfect. He was of opinion that male blos-
soms must have existed, which were overlooked by Spallanzani.
Voltaf also was unable to procure any perfect seeds from plants from
which the anthers had been carefully removed.

In 1837, Ramisch published some observations upon Mercurialis
annua, with which he had been occupied for four successive years.
The results were inconclusive, for although Eamisch procured seeds,
both with and without embryos, he admits that in some of the female
plants upon which he experimented male blossoms were present, and
he attempts to exclude the operation of the pollen in these herma-
phrodite flowers by suggesting that the anthers had only been opened
for a very short time.

Bernhardi's experiments with Cannabis are given in " Otto u.
Dietrich's Allgemeine Gartenzeitung, 1839." These experiments
were continued for six years, and each year with the same result.
The plants were sown in April in the open air ; the male plants which
appeared were destroyed, and two female plants only allowed to stand,
which were carefully examined every two days, in case any male
blossoms should be overlooked. Each year seeds were ripened, from
which both male and female plants were raised. Bernhardi was satis-
fied that at the time of the experiments no male plants were in flower
near the spot where they were carried on, and consequently that
accidental impregnation by pollen grains carried by the wind, or by
insects, was out of the question.

Gartner's observations on Delphinium Consolida are important
as showing the great care which must be taken in order to guard
against deception. For some years he had taken what he considered
sufficient precautions, and nevertheless had always obtained perfect
seeds, apparently without any previous impregnation; but in the
year 1838, when he cut off" the male organs at an earlier period, and
examined the plants several times daily, removing individual anthers
at each examination, he found that the plants upon which he experi-
mented produced no seeds.

We now come to the case of Ccelebogyne ilicifolia, the famous
Euphorbiaceous plant, the great stumbling block of the opponents of
parthenogenesis. This plant is dioecious, and the female one forms a
low evergreen shrub, with pale green oval leaves, toothed like the
holly. The female flowers are situated at the apex and on the side
of small branches, and form short spikes of five or more flowers. The
ovary is trilocular, and the stigma three-lobed. Each flower has on
its calyx and bracts large wart-like glands, which at the time of flow-
ering secrete a watery fluid. Three female plants were sent by
Cunningham from Moreton Bay to Kew, where they flowered for the

* Experimento y Observaciones sobre los sexos y fecondation de los plantas.
Vol. i. Barcelona, 1791.

f Memoires de l'Acad. de Mantoue, i. 226.

REPORT ON VEGETABLE PARTHENOGENESIS. i l\)

first time in 1839. In 1844 Mr. John Smith, of the Koyal Gardens
at Kew, published, in the Transactions of the Linna?an Society, an
account of his observations on this plant, He staled that he had
never been able to find male flowers or pollen of any Sort, but that
nevertheless perfect seeds were produced end) year, from which young
plants were raised resembling the parent plant in every respect. Mr.
Smith suggested the possibility of the existence of a fertilizing power
in the fluid secreted by the glands above mentioned. "We shall have
to return to the case of Coelebogyne in a later part of this report,
but there are some other intermediate observations which first require
attention.

In the "Annales des Sc. jSTat." Ser. III. Vol. V. Gasparini asserts
that the cultivated fig produces seeds without the intervention of
pollen. It bears (he says) two kinds of fruit, the one kind appears
in spring and ripens early, the other appears in summer and ripens in
autumn. In the former, male flowers are seldom found, and those
which exist cannot serve for impregnation, as they do not appear
until the stigma has withered. In these early fruits Gasparini never
found perfect seeds. In the summer fruit he never found male flow-
ers, and yet most of the ovaries produced seeds capable of germina-
tion. In order to prevent impregnation from without, Gasparini
closed the opening of the young fruit of the cultivated fig with gum,
or some other glutinous matter, and yet procured numerous perfect
seeds. He never found in the fruits thus experimented upon any
anthers or pollen-bearing organs. To these observations of Gaspa-
rini it has been objected — 1st. That from time immemorial the culti-
vated fig has been impregnated artificially by the wild fig, an opera-
tion which would have been a waste of trouble if perfect seeds were
produced without such process ; 2ndly, that the impregnation cannot
be watched with the necessary care, inasmuch as it takes place within
the receptacle of the fruit ; and 3rdly, that some observers have
noticed peculiar organs in the ovule of the cultivated fig, which are
called pollinidia, the nature of which is not yet understood.

The next observations at which we arrive are those of M. ISaudin.*
He experimented with Hemp, Mercarialis, Ricinus, Bryonia, and
Ecbalium. He found that female plants of Hemp planted in a place
surrounded by high walls, and others cultivated in pots and placed in
a greenhouse in a garden, also surrounded by high walls, produced a
quantity of perfect seeds, although no male plants were near, and
although the females were subjected to -careful examinat ion with a
view to the detection of possible male organs, Pemalc plants raised
from these unimpregnated seeds were set apart in the house of M.
Decaisne, and so protected that INI. Xaudin considers it altogether
impossible that any pollen could have reaehed them ; and although they
were carefully examined by himself and M. Decaisne, no single male
flower was ever discovered amongst the females. His observations

* Comptes remlucs, Vol. A-) (lSJ(i).

450 ORIGINAL AltTICLES.

on Mereurialis were conducted in a similar manner and with similar
results. The Bryonia wTas kept in a room in the Museum at Paris,
entirely isolated from all male plants, and yet for three years succes-
sively it produced a few perfect seeds. A young plant raised from
one of these seeds also produced perfect seeds without apparent im-
pregnation, and the number of them when counted, was found to be
about the same as that produced by a female plant exposed to
the influence of pollen. This result M. Naudin considers to be
opposed to the supposition of impregnation by the aid of insects,
which however he thinks may possibly have been the case with the
Bryonia.

The plants of Ricinus and JEobalium produced no perfect fruit,
and M. Naudin is of opinion that dioecious plants are more apt to
produce fruit without impregnation than monoecious ones. In 1857,
Hadlkofer published some remarks upon the present subject in
Siebold and Kolliker's " Zeitschrift fur. wiss. Zoologie." He assumes
the certainty of the absence of male organs in the female plants of
Coplebogyne. He examined the young embryo-sacs, in which he
found three germinal vesicles, of which sometimes one, sometimes
two, or even all three, became true embryos. He concludes that a
true parthenogenesis exists in Ccelebogyne ; and he considers this
conclusion fortified by the fact (previously noticed by Smith) that
the stigma remains fresh until just before the ripening of the seeds,
whilst in ordinary cases it withers shortly after impregnation. He
states that, although the stigma in Hemp and in Mereurialis withers
soon after impregnation, he had noticed its persistence in one of the
female Hemp plants experimented upon by Naudin, and in a female
plant of Mereurialis annua which had been kept by M. Thuret apart
from the male.

Braun's elaborate essay on parthenogenesis appeared in 1857 in
the " Transactions of the Berlin Academy." After referring to the
accounts of previous observers, which, before Ccelebogyne was known,
had rendered the existence of parthenogenesis probable, he states
that the latter plant is one which fulfils the necessary conditions.
The observations made at Berlin agreed with those at Kew, as to the
fact of the production by female plants of perfect seeds without any
process of impregnation. He considers it to be against all proba-
bility that any abnormal mode of impregnation, as by the glands,
observed by Smith, should exist, and notices in detail some observa-
tions made at his request by M. Deecke, as to the mode of origin of
the embryo in Ccelebogyne, the result of which Avas to show that the
process differed in no way from ordinary embryo-formation as ob-
served by Hofmeister, Tulasne, and Eadlkofer. After noticing that
Badlkofer's observations differed from Deecke's only in the fact that
the former found three and the latter only two embryonic vesicles,
Dr. Braun remarks, " These observations lead to the result, that in
" Ccelebogyne the germs of new individuals are developed within a
" normally constructed female organ of generation without any

EEPOItT OX VEGETABLE PA IITH ENi >G ENESIS. lol

" previous influence of pollen, and consequently a true partheno-
" genesis exists."

Further on, Dr. Braun alludes to the la.-t of ihc persistence of
the stigma (upon which, as wo have mentioned, ioidlkofcr relie
showing tlie absence of impregnation. In Cryptogams a remarkable
instance of apparent part heimiiyncsis occurs in CJtara crinitq. in all
the Characeic, with the exception ol'lliisi species, the male an<l female
Organs are equally common, sometimes on the same, sometimes on
separate plants. After noticing the distinctive feat arcs of the sp<
its geographical distribution, and the certainty that in many localities
the female plant alone exists, Dr. Braun gives it as nis opinion that,
at least in certain places, Chara crinlta has the capacity of prodm-mir,
without the operation of any male organ, normal spores capable of
germination, and consequently that it affords an instance of veritable
parthenogenesis.

In ' Bonplandia,' for 1857 (p. 209), Klotzsch suggested that the
so-called embryo in Coelebogyne is in fact not an embryo at all. He
says that all the Euphorbiacere, without exception, have anatropal
ovules, and a highly developed straight embryo with the radicle turned
to the micropyle, whilst the large flat cotyledons winch enclose the
plumule are directed to the chalaza. In Coelebogyne, on the contrary,
no freely developed embryo is perceptible, nor is there any trace of
a radicle turned towards the micropyle, or of cotyledons turned
towards the chalaza, Instead of the above, there is found an ellip-
tical body within a fleshy, not albuminous, envelope, and consisting
of a convoluted leaf -like mass, firmly attached on the inside of the
seed to the chalaza by a discoid foot. From these facts Klotzsch
arrives at the conclusion that the supposed embryo is a bud formed
within the seed.

Eupreclit* has objected that Klotzsch has given no figure of the
perfect seed, and without this he seems to consider Klotzsch's ob-
servations open to doubt, at the same time expressing no opinion
either for or against parthenogenesis.

Radlkofer's second essay on parthenogenesis relates to some
matters of opinion in dispute between himself and Braun. He dis-
cusses the nature of the germinal vesicle before impregnation, and
considers that in that stage it must be looked upon, not as the germ
of the future plant, but as a rudimentary bod)- capable of becoming
a germ; a distinction somewhat subtle, and not very easily appre-
ciable. He also enters upon the question of the analogy between
the embryo-sac and the spore of the higher cryptogams. These
matters, however, have no bearing upon the practical question
as to the existence or non-existence of parthenogenesis in vegeta-
bles, and we refrain therefore from any further details with regard
to them.

In 1859, Hegel's paper, " Die Parthenogenesis im pfl^ze^-refche,"

* Em Beitrair zur Fi\i,q-c iilicr die Parthenogenesis bei Pilauzen, iin Bulletin dc
l'Acad. Imp. dcS. Peterebourg, 1858, p. -274; No. 378.

452 ORIGINAL ARTICLES.

was published in the Memoirs of the Academy of St. Petersburg,
(VII. Ser. Tome I. No. 2.) He considers that Spallanzani's experi-
ments are the only ones which have been well conducted, and admits
that if he (Eegel) could have procured perfect seeds by operating as
Spallanzani did with the Hemp and the Water-melon, the doctrine of
parthenogenesis might be considered established. Eegel attempts
to get rid of Spallanzani's authority, by suggesting either that his
observations were not carefully conducted, or that Spallanzani did
not speak the truth. The latter accusation appears to have no sort
of foundation ; at least the grounds for it given by Eegel are of the
weakest description.

In the course of a series of experiments on hybridization, Eegel
observed that the anthers of many plants are fully formed and con-
tain perfect pollen some time before the opening of the flowers ;
from which he concludes that it is necessary, in all experiments on
parthenogenesis, to cut off the anthers at a very early period, or
otherwise impregnation may have taken place without the observer
having any suspicion of it. He considers monaecious and disecious
plants to be especially likely to have led to deceptions, because
sufficient care was not taken to examine each individual flower —
a precaution which is necessary on account of the frequent occurrence
of accidental anthers in the female flowers, and because monsecious
and dioecious plants produce a greater quantity of pollen than her-
maphrodites, and consequently accidental impregnation by wind or
insects is highly probable. He considers the Hemp-plant, which has
been so much employed for these experiments, to be especially ill-
suited for them, on account of the abundance of its easily dispersible
pollen, and of its universal cultivation. As therefore (he says) these
precautions have not been taken by any trustworthy observer, and
as his own observations have afforded only negative results, he con-
siders it certain that the formation of a true embryo can only take
place under the influence of impregnation.

Eegel then proceeds to give an account of his observations upon
the Cycadese, and especially upon Ceratozamia, and the result that
he arrived at was, that no embryo can be formed without the influence
of a pollen-tube, but that the growth of the embryo-sac and the pro-
duction of endosperm, as also the formation of corpuscula in G-ymno-
sperms, may take place independently of impregnation. The case
of the CycadcaB he considers very conclusive, as showing that the
development in the embryo-sac can only proceed up to the point at
which the stimulus to the commencement of the formation of an
embryo must be given, and that where this stimulus is wanting,
the germinal vesicle, even in vigorous seeds, exhibits no further
development.

Eegel subsequently proceeds to detail his experiments on Mer-
curialis annua, from which he concludes that the previous observers
who have imagined that they have procured perfect seeds without
impregnation, have overlooked the very frequent occurrence of anthers
in the so-called female flowers ; and with regard to the persistence

REPORT OX VEGETABLE PARTHENOGENESIS. 153

r
of the stigma, upon which Kadlkofer places so much roliano
proving the tact of non-impregnat ion, a Bgture ifl given (after \ i a )
of the young j'ri'il still surmounted \,\ i he jjefefect stigma; and it is
stated that tlic stigma is not only persistent , hut c\cn increased in
growth after impregnation — a eircunirttance which (it is added) has
often been observed by Klotzseh in the Euphorbia< l

Experiments upon Spinacia oleracra, simitar to those ju.-i men-
tioned upon MercuriaJis, led the autlior to the conclusion that
Spinacia is, in point of fact, an hermaphrodite plant, which can pro-
duce no perfect seeds when impregnation is really pre\on1cd, but
that such prevention is a most diilicult task, it being next to impos-
sible to remove the male tlowers at so early a stage and with so much
eare, as to be certain that impregnation has not taken place.

Lastly, Kegel entered upon the same investigations with female
plants of Cannabis saliva. He eut the plants down to a few branches,
so that he might be able to examine with a lens the numerous flowers
which were daily produced, and so that the whole vegetative force of
the plant might be directed to those few branches, and thus favour
the formation of fruit. He kept these plants in favourable situations
until the month of October, up to which time none of the ovaries
produced seeds ; but all of them, without exception, withered and
dropped off. He then put these plants, and another female plant
subsequently reared, but not cut clown like the former, into a room
with a male plant. The heat of the room and other circumstances
he considered to be unfavourable to fructification. Nevertheless, the
female plants which had been cut doAvn produced and ripened seed,
whilst the other female plant did not fructify. The results are thus
recapitulated by the author. — Two plants cut dovni so that the whole
vegetative power was directed to the formation of seeds, placed under
favourable circumstances, vigorous in their growth, and having daily
access to fresh air, produced no fruit so long as impregnation was
withheld. The same plants under unfavourable circumstances, in
a close hot room, and when the days were shortened, produced and
ripened seeds as soon as they were subjected to impregnation. A plant
not cut down like the above, and impregnated under the (unfavour-
able) circumstances just mentioned, produced no seeds.

Eegel states that he has not had the opportunity of examining
Ccelebogyne, and can therefore give no decided opinion as to that
plant. He suggests the possibility of the future discowrv of sessile
anthers between the bracts or near the glands, or that individual
pollen-grains may be developed in the interior of the embryo \ the
latter suggestion arising from the fact of Dccckc baring seen in
Ccelebogyne a pollen-tube which had penetrated to the embryo-sac,
although neither he nor Eadlkofer could discover pollen-grains upon
the stigma.

Since the publication of Kegel's paper, Dr. Braim has returned
to the subject in a communication made to the Berlin Academy, and
published in their Transactions for 1859. This essay, which has

454 ORIGINAL ARTICLES.

since appealed separately, is of enormous length, occupying about
150 quarto pages. Only a small portion of it, however, relates
directly to the simple question of the existence, or non-existence, of
fructification without impregnation. The author expressly contra-
dicts the theory advanced by Klotzsch as to the nature of the body
within the seeds of Ccelebogyne. He says : "I can confidently re-
" affirm, and prove at any time by sections of seeds in my possession,
" that the embryo-formation of Ccelebogyne which I have observed
" and described, fulfils all the conditions necessary to constitute a
" veritable embryo, and agrees in its essential features with that of
" the other Euphorbiaceas." In a later part of the essay some
remarks are given under the head "Weitere Zeugnisse fur die
Parthenogenesis," of which the following is a short account. Some
observations on individual plants given by Euprecht, Tenore, Lecoq,
and Jacquemont are noticed, the author stating that he was un-
willing to pass them over entirely, although (he adds), as merely
special instances, little importance may be attached to them. Dr.
Braun then refers (as bearing upon the question of parthenogenesis)
to those cases of fructification called by Gartner Fructifcatio spuria,
in which fruit is formed, and even seeds also ; the latter being appa-
rently perfect, but containing no embryo. Instances of this occur
in Datisca, Adelia, the Cycadese, and the Conifers ; and give rise to
the question, whether the unimpregnated germinal vesicle disappears
without undergoing any development ; or whether the development
progresses to a certain extent, and is then arrested. Dr. Braun con-
siders this point deserving of investigation, as, in his opinion, it is
not improbable that, besides perfect parthenogenesis, there may exist
indications of parthenogenesis, as has been observed in the animal
tino-dom. The above question, he adds, is connected with the further
ones ; 1, whether or not, speaking generally, the formation of seeds
and fruits depends upon the development of the germinal vesicle into
an embryo; and, 2, whether, when impregnation occurs, it acts directly
only upon the development of the germinal vesicle into an embryo,
and thus indirectly upon the formation of the surrounding parts ; or
whether impregnation acts upon the entire ovule, or even upon the
ovary itself. Observations, he says, are wanting as to the well-known
cases of fructification without seeds which occurs in certain cultivated
varieties of Citrus, Pyrus, Cydonia, Vitis, Arlocarpus, Ifnsa, and
Ananassa. It should be ascertained in what stage of development
the ovules fail, and whether the formation of these seedless fruits is
in all cases independent of impregnation.

Having regard to the cases in which parthenogenesis has been
noticed in the animal kingdom, Dr. Braun observes that it might be
expected to play a more important part amongst cryptogamic, than
amongst phamogamic plants. He adds, however, that this question
is surrounded by many difficulties, and that he can do no more than
make a few suggestions on the subject. He alludes, in the first place,
to the ferns, in which he considers that the constant reappearance

REPORT ON YK'.KTAM.i PABBHENOGEN] !•">•*>

of individual peculiarities, and oxen of monstrosities, points to the
existence nf zoloi \ pieal* reproduct ion, and taJhiequeiM 1\ of partheno-
gpneei* lie iIki! nefatrn to fcbe toossea, ma u u intwns that in towq

<d'ibem male bio* dtft even knuun, whilst in ulhcrs, although

known, tlicy mrur but seldom, and yet in bojtl LJj iflpcpduqecl

plenu'fulh . at !< ast in some localities. For example, the male blos-
soms of D icran urn undu la In m are entirely unknown, and vet it is a
moss whieh forms an abundance ot* fruit." ]n Sphaf/aum moUuscum
the male plants are known, but yet the species fruits freely in places
where no traee of them is to be found ; and the same tiling occurs in
Camptothecium Jutescens. Atrichum un J (datum bears a male ilowcr
only in tlie first year ; from whieh, in the second and subsequent years,
innovations are produced bearing female flowers. Patches of this moss
are often found bearing fruit, but having no first-year male plants in
or near them. Fissidens incurvus bears the male flowers at the apex
of a lateral innovation of the second year, but it produces fruit in the
first year of its growth. Dr. Braun then refers to the Alga?, and
dismisses the Vloridea? and Fucoideas as exhibiting no satisfactory
proofs of parthenogenesis. He then mentions the Conjugate ; and,
adopting Do Bary's theory that the process of copulation is a peculiar
modification of sexual reproduction, he considers that the exceptional
cases where the spores in the Conjugate are formed without copu-
lation must be looked upon as instances of parthenogenesis ; at least,
if it may be assumed (what he admits is not yet proved) that such
spores agree with the others in their structure and mode of
germination.

In a note at pp. 117 and 118 of his essay, Dr. Braun refers to
some experiments of Schenk, made, during the three previous years,
in the botanical garden at "Wurzburg, and also to some observations
of De Bary made at Freiburg. Schenk directed his attention to
Cannabis sativa, Mcrcurialis annua, llicinus' commu/iis, Momordioa
elaterium, and Cucurbita Pepo. De Bary speaks of Cannabis saliva
alone. Both observers obtained only negative results, and the same
was the case with some later observations upon Cannabis satica and
Mercurialis made by Schenk, and reported *in the " Wurzburg Nat.
Zeitschrift," Bd. 1. pp. 85-89.

The last publication which we have to mention is Karsien's
treatise, entitled " Das Geschleehtsleben der Filanzen und die
Parthenogenesis," published at Berlin in LSOO. II that

anthers are not unfrequently developed -at the base of the <al\ \ q$
the female flowers of Cceleboqt/nc ; that lie has himself observed this
in the botanical garden at Berlin ; that if Cwlebogyae be carefully

* " Zelotvpie" and " Idiotypic" are words coincl by Radlkofcr in his treatise
on the relation of partheno^em.'sis to other modes of reproduction. In sexual re-
production, the new individual, although retaining the peculiarities of the species,
may vary to some extent from the original type. This is called l>y Radlkofcr
" idiotypical" reproduction. In asexual reproduction, the now individual is, so to
speak, a copy of the old one : this Kadlkofcr calls ' /clotypieal " reproduction.
VOL. I. — N. II. E. 3 JN'

450 ORIGINAL ARTICLES.

examined, a succession of hermaphrodite flowers may be observed at
intervals throughout the whole summer, from the beginning of May
to the end of August ; and that, in fact, about every fifth flower is
hermaphrodite.

"With, these observations of Karsten the present report comes to
a close ; and the readers of it, being now in possession of the evidence
on both sides, may form their own opinion whether or not partheno-
genesis exists in the vegetable world. It is no part of the duty of
the writer of a report to give his own views upon the subject to which
it relates, although we ventured a statement at the outset that the
point in dispute was far from decided. Setting aside the case of
Coelebogyne, it appears to the writer that, although some of the facts
might lead to a suspicion on the subject, there is really no proof
whatever of the existence of parthenogenesis, at least, in phamo-
gamic plants ; and with regard to the Cryptogamia, the discovery of
their sexual organs is of such comparatively recent date, and the
examination of them is surrounded by so many difficulties, and is in
the hands of so few observers, that it would be rash in the extreme
to found any theory upon the results hitherto obtained. Coelebogyne,
however, still remains a striking instance of the apparent possibility
of reproduction without impregnation ; for, although the value of the
evidence afforded by this latter plant is doubtless shaken by Karsten's
observations, it is quite impossible to assume, with him, that partheno-
genesis is yet disproved. It cannot be supposed that the observations
of Smith, Itadlkofer, Deecke, and Braun have been so imperfectly and
carelessly conducted as must be the case if, as Karsten would lead
us to suppose, every fifth flower in every plant of Coelebogyne is
hermaphrodite. We do not at all intend to deny the correctness
of his observations, but we think it highly improbable that, if the
stamens of Coelebogyne were of such frequent occurrence, they would
have escaped the notice of so many other equally able observers.

In conclusion, it is hardly necessary to remark, that further
observations by competent botanists, as to the anatomy of the in-
florescence of Coelebogyne, are much to be desired ; and that further
inquiries into the reproductive process in cryptogamic plants may
hereafter throw additional fight upon the subject. For the present,
all that can be said is that A'egetable parthenogenesis is not proven.

XLYII. — On the Systematic Arrangement of the Ehizopoda.
By William B. Carpenter, M.D. F.B.S., &c.

Notwithstanding that, by the general consent of zoologists, the
group of RMzopods is now admitted to take rank as a class in the
sub-kingdom Protozoa, and although there is little or no difference
of opinion as to the extent of range which it comprehends, scarcely
anything has yet been done towards the determination of the prin-

CABPENTEB ON THE' \K"\^ ' m;\t or THE EHIZOPODA. lo7

Ciplea on which its various forms should 1 »o classified into Orders and
Families; so iliai among the Writings of recent Wtfteiriatists there fe
a complete (listuu'onlanco as t6 the relative1 places1 assifeed to tli"in.
Having been recently led to inquire into this subject with sonic eare,
for the purpose of determining the relations of the Foraminifera to
the other members of the class, and having been encouraged to believe
that my results mav be deemed worthy of acceptance by other Natu-
ralists, I avail myself of the pages of the "Natural History Ke\ie\v"'
to bring them in a eoncise form under their consideration ; referring
to my forthcoming "Introduction to the Study of the froraminifera;'*
shortly to be published by the Ray Society, for a fuller exposition
of them.

It is not a little singular that Dujardin, who first discovered the
true "idea" of the Ehizopodous type,* and to whose original account
little of importance has subsequently beeu added, should have so
limited his definition of it as actually to exclude some of what we
now regard as its most characteristic examples. In his " Histoire
Natureue des Zoophytes Infusoires" (Paris, 1841), he ranks the
Amibiens as the second family of his Ikfusoires, the Rhizopodcs as
the third, and the Act inoplir -yens as the fourth ; but he distinctly
states that the structure of the animal is essentially the same in the
first two cases, and that the Rhizopodes are differentiated from the
Amibiens solely by the enclosure of their bodies in a testaceous
envelope, varying in consistence from a simple flexible membrane to
a thick calcareous shell, either solid or porous. He does not, how-
ever, regard the differences in the texture of the envelope as equal in
importance to those presented by the form of the pscudopodian
extensions of the sarcode-body, according to which the RJiizopode.s- may
he divided into two sections; of which the iirst (corresponding to
Ehrcnberg's family An-rllina) includes only the Areelhe and J)if-
jlugice, whose bseu I are short, thick, and rounded at their

extremities; whilst the second comprehends all those whose psetnlo-
podia are filiform and much attenuated towards their extremities.
This second section was subdivided by Dujardin into three tribes ;
the first composed of the genera Trinema, Euc/lypha, and Gromia
(all discovered by himself), which are distinguished from Difflurjia
only by the attenuation of their pseudopodia ; the second is composed
of the single genus MilioJa, which agrees with the ordinary Forami-
nifera in the possession of a calcareous shell, whilst it corresponds
with Gromia in having but a single large aperture from which the
p.-udopodia extend themselves ; and the third includes the Ilnnnini-
fera proper, all of which were supposed by Dujardin to be furnished
(like the few observed by himself) with porous shells for the i
pseudopodia from the general surface of the body.

Now this arrangement, imperfect though it was, is ha-od (as it

* "Observations sur les Ilhkopcdis ct les 1 nj'usol res ;" -in Conqjics RendftS,
1835, p. 333.

458 ORIGINAL ARTICLES.

seems to me) on a truer perception of the value of characters than
most of the classifications that have been since proposed. For Dujardin
distinctly recognized the fact that Arcella and Difflugia are nothing
else than testaceous Amoebans ; and in separating these from those
Bliizopods which are characterized by the possession of filiform,
tapering, or ramifying pseudopodia, he laid the foundation of a truly
natural grouping of the latter. Had he recognized the fact that his
group of (testaceous) Eliizopods is related, on the one side, not less
closely to Actinoplirys than it is, on the other, to Amoeba, and that
Trinema and Euglyplia are really formed on the Actinophryan type,
whilst Gromia is the representative of the Foraminiferous, he would
have marked out, upon a sound basis, what appear to me to be the
fundamental divisions of the class. Even in separating Miliola from
the ordinary Foraminifera, he adopted a principle which I believe to
be perfectly correct, though his limited acquaintance with the group
misled him in the application of it; for, as I shall hereafter show,
Miliola is the type of a large group of Foraminifera in which the
body is inclosed by an imperforate shell, so that there is no exit for
its pseudopodial extensions except by the apertural plane, in which
there is sometimes (as in Miliola) a single large orifice, whilst in
other cases it is replaced by a multiplicity of distinct pores. The
differentiation between this group and the one in which the shell,
being everywhere perforated with pores more or less fine, allows the
passage of pseudopodia from every part of the surface,, of the body,
I hold, with Dujardin, to be of essential importance.

These considerations have been altogether passed over, not only by
M. D'Orbigny, who adopted Dujardin's rectification of the position
of the Foraminifera in the zoological series, without in any way modi-
fying the classification of the group which he had previously devised
under the notion that the animals by which these shells are formed
are minute Cephalopods, but also by Prof. Schultze, who, having
applied himself to the study of the Foraminifera and their allies in
the living condition, might be expected to have gained more insight
into their true relations as indicated by the characters furnished by
their sarcode-bodies. Tet he shows himself to be so completely under
the influence of views of systematization based on the characters of
the shell, and to have so little regard even to the most important
structural and physiological differences anywhere presented by the
animals of this class, as to associate in his family Lagynidce* — for no
other reason than that they agree in the possession of a unilocular
test, Arcella and Difflugia — whose animals are of the Arnoeban type,
Trinema and Euglypha — whose animals are Actinophryan in cha-
racter, Gromia — whose animal is the type of that of the imperforate-
shelled Foraminifera, Squamulina — which has an imperforate cal-
careous shell of the Milioline type, and Ovulina — whose shell is

* See his treatise, " Ueber den Organismus der Polytlialamien (Foraminiferen)
nebst Bermerkungen liber die Rhizopoden in allgemeinen." Leipzig, 1854.

CARPENTER ON THE ABEAM; MM EXT OF THE RHIZOPODA. 169

perforated. Any arrangement more truly unnatural can scarcely be
conceived : — to flW it appears a ^Ori of mhn-tio ad obtainl 'inn of the
principle that the unilorwlarity or inullilocularily <>1' 1 lie* AvA\ slmuld
be held of primary account in the >yslematic arrangement, hi
organisms in (jiu-stion.

An important step in the chissi jicnt ion of the Riiizopoda was
made by the late Prof. Johann Midler, in his admirable memoir
(Transactions of the Berlin Academy, Lsos), 4l LYticr die Thalaasi-
collen, Polycysfinen, und Acanthovictrtn des Alii telmecres ;"' these
three groups, whose mutual allinity lie showed to lie very strong,
being associated by him into a distinct sub-class, which lie distin-
guished as Rhizopoda Radiolabia. lie failed, however, to perceive
what appears to me to be the essential relationship between the
Acantliometrina and Actinophryna ; an Acanthometra, as we shall
presently see, being nothing else than an Actinophrys furnished w ith
a siliceous skeleton. And in drawing a strong line of demarcation
between the simple and the composite forms of Thalassicolina, he
endeavoured to establish a distinction which seems to me untenable
among animals that multiply by gemmation, between the simple and
the composite forms. Taking the group of Radiolaria as a whole,
however, it may be considered an eminently natural one ; and I adopt
it as one of the primitive sub- divisions of the class, adding to it the
family Actinophryna, which includes Actinophrys and its immediate
allies, for reasons which will be presently apparent.

More recently an attempt has been made to frame a natural
classification of the Rhizopoda as a wThole, by two distinguished
pupils of Prof. Muller, MM. Claparede and Lachmann (" Etudes sur
les Infusoires et les Rhizopodes" Geneve, partie 2ieme, 1859) ; and
it is with some diffidence that I venture to express a divergence of
opinion from observers who have been trained in so excellent a school,
and who have given such ample proofs in their published writings of
practical familiarity with the several forms whose relations they dis-
cuss. The following is the scheme proposed by them (1. c. p. 4-31): —

Orders. Families,

f No silicious spicula } pROTEIVA f *• Amoebina.

No calcareous

test
No multiple-
porous cham-^
bers

Pseudopodia
rarely <(

No yellow cells S

uniting

Silicious spicula
Yellow cells

Pseudopodia
form in;.

;iinii<T<
^ junctions

Dpodia *}
-very f
orous /
tions J

A usually calcareous test, ^
most frequently multilocular:

' even wben there is but a sin- !
gle chamber, its parietes are (
traversed by a multitude of j

L pores J

\ ECHINO-

] CVST1DA

Gkomid.v.

FOKAMI-

MFJEKA

£ 2. Actinophryna.

C I. Acantliometrina.
•J 2. Thalassicollina.
( 3. Polycystina.

Gromida.

{ 1. VlolMitl,

( -J. l'olythalamia.

460 ORIGINAL ARTICLES.

Now on this I have to remark, in the first place, that the two
families Amcebina and Actinophryna, which are associated in the order
Proteena., differ essentially from each other in several particulars
which seem to me of great; physiological importance ; whilst I can-
not trace any such peculiar bond of union between them, as would
be required to justify their separation from all other Bhizopods and
their association into a separate order. Again: the foregoing arrange-
ment follows that of Prof. Miiller in dissociating Actinophryna from
Acanthometrina, to which they are much more nearly allied than they
are to Arnoebina. And thirdly, the ordinal separation of Gtromida
from Poramikceeea seems to me to be altogether unwarranted by
any essential difference, since the condition of the animal in these
two groups is in every respect the same ; while the diversity in the
material of the envelopes which they respectively form can no more
be admitted as a valid ground of separation in this group than in the
family Amcelina, of which Arcella exudes a chithious test like that of
Gromia, whilst Difflngia forms its test by the cementation of foreign
particles, as do several genera among Foraminifera.

It is, as it seems to me, in the structural and physiological con-
ditions of the animal alone, that we should look for the characters on
which our primary subdivisions should be constituted ; and notwith-
standing that the extreme simplicity and apparent vagueness of those
conditions at first sight appear almost to forbid the attempt to assign
to them a differential value, yet a sufficiently careful scrutiny will
make it clear that, under their guidance, lines of demarcation may be
drawn, as precise as in any other great natural group, between three
aggregations of forms which assemble themselves round three well-
known types, Amoela, Actinoplirys, and Gromia, — the sarcodc-bodics
of these three types presenting three distinct stages in the differen-
tiation of the protoplasmic substance of which they are composed,
and exhibiting, in virtue of that differentiation, three very distinct
modes of vital activity.

I. — The lowest stage of this differentiation is seen in Gromia and
its allies, among which may be particularly specified a remarkable
naked form, which has been described by MM. Claparede and
Lachmann under the name of Lieberkuhnia, and which seems either
identical with the Pamphagus of the late Prof. Bailey (U.S.), or very
closely allied to it. In tins type the whole substance of the body and
of its pseudopodian extensions is composed of a homogeneous, semi-
fluid, granular protoplasm, the particles of which, when the animal is in
a state of activity, are continually performing a circulatory movement,
which has recently been likened by Prof. Schultze (and, as it seems to
me, with great justice) to the circulation of the particles in the proto-
plasmic network within the cell of a Tradescantia. The entire absence of
anything like a membranous envelope is evinced by the readiness with
Which the pseudopodian extensions fuse together whenever they come
into contact, and with which the principal branches subdivide into
finer and yet finer threads, by whose continual inosculations a net-

CARPENTEB OB PHE .\\l\i\- ill i " ftHIZOPODA. J01

work is produced that might be almost de.M.-rihed as an animated
spider's wvk Any small alimentary particles ihat may come into
contact with the glntinons 9ur|ace ot the | . \ tained in

adhesion by it, and speedily pan.

on in tiieii* substance. Tliis movement tajies place, in two principal
direi-iions ; from the body towards , . mitics of the p>eiido-

podia, and from tliese extremities back to the bodv again, in the
r branches a donhle current may be seen, two streams passing al
the same time in opposite directions; hnt in the liner filaments 1 he
cuiTent is single, and a granule may be seen to move in one pf 1hem
to its very extremity, and theu to return, perhaps i.. .,d carrv-

ing back with it a granule that was seen advancing in the opp<
extremity. Even in the broader processes, granules are sometimes
observed to come to a stand, to oscillate for a time, and then to take
a retrograde course, as if they had been entangled in the opposing
current, — just as is often to be seen in Chant. AVhcn a grannie
arrives at a point where a filament bifurcates, it is often arrested for
a time until drawn into one or the other current ; and when carried
across one of the bridge-like connections into a different band, it not
unfrequently meets a current proceeding in the opposite direction,
and is thus carried back to the body without having proceeded very-
far from it. The pseudopodian network along which this " cyclosis"
takes place is continually undergoing changes in its own arrange-
ment; new filaments being put forth in different directions, sometimes
from its margin, sometimes from the midst of its ramifications, whilst
others are retracted. Not unfrequently it happens, that to a spot where
two or more filaments have met, there is an Influx of the protoplasmic
substance, which causes it to accumulate there as a sort of secondary
centre, from which a new radiation of filamentous processes takes place.
Now, the entire absence of differentiation in the protoplasmic
substance, the freedom of the mutual inosculation of its pseudopodian
extensions, and the active cyclosis incessantly going on between tliese
and the body, are three mutually related conditions, which not only
serve to characterize the group of ainmals that exhibits them, but, as
we shall presently see, to differentiate that group from others. There
is, moreover, a negative character of much importance, which is
naturally associated with the absence of differentiation, — namely, tho
deficiency of the "nucleus" and "contractile vesicle" that occur both
in Actinophrys and in Amoeba. So far as is yet known, there is a
perfect agreement as to all these characters between the Foramin ij "era
and the Gromida; and I regard Licbcr'ku.linia as standing in the same
relation to the chitine-covered Groiuia or to the calcareous-shelled
Foramidifera, that Actinophrys does 10 the chitine-covered Fuglypha
or to the siHeeous-shelledPo/^y^/;?^. The entire group thus consti-
tuted may (as it appears to me) be appropriately termed Bhizopoda
Eeticularia; the ordinal designation being meaut to express that
reticulose arrangement of the pseudopodian extensions which i
distinguishing cha ra cte i ■'■

462 ORIGINAL ARTICLES.

II. — In Actinoplirys and its allies there is a degree of definiteness
in the form and arrangement of the pseudopodia, which contrasts
strongly with the entire indeiiniteness which prevails throughout the
Eeticulose order. These organs are, for the most part, simple fila-
ments, tapering gradually from base to point, usually maintaining
their isolation throughout, and extending in a radiary direction from
the body of the animal. It is obvious that they are of much firmer
consistence than in Gromia and its allies, since they neither sub-
divide themselves by ramification into finer filaments, nor do they
show any readiness to coalesce when they come into mutual contact.
Still it is equally certain that they can be retracted into the general
mass of the body, and fused (as it were) into its substance ; and such
a fusion takes place when food is being entrapped by their means.
A careful examination of the substance of the Actinophrys serves to
explain this apparent inconsistency ; for it thence appears that the
body and its pseudopodian extensions are far from having the homo-
geneousness of those of Lieberkiihnia, but that there is an incipient
differentiation of their substance into two dissimilar constituents, the
outer layer being least granular and of firmer consistence, whilst the
contained portion approaches more nearly to the character of a liquid,
as may be seen by the freer movements of the granular particles which
are suspended in it. These two constituents have been appropriately
designated by Dr. T. Strethill "Wright as the "ectosarc" and the
" endosarc." There is no definite line of demarcation between them;
but the one graduates insensibly into the others. It seems to be,
however, from the ectosarc alone that the pseudopodia are put forth ;
the granular endosarc not extending itself into them. A movement
of granules along their surface may indeed be discerned by careful
observation ; but these appear to be merely particles which have been
entrapped by adhesion to the surface of the pseudopodia, and are
being transmitted to the body; and there is nothing like that regular
circulation from the body to the extremities of the pseudopodia, and
back again, which is so remarkable a feature in the Reticularia. With
the incipient differentiation of the protoplasmic substance, there seems
to be associated the presence of a " nucleus ;" which, however, is not
so strongly marked in Actinophrys as it is in Amoeba, and may easily
escape notice. The " contractile vesicle," on the other hand, is always
discernible, and its actions are very regular. Its presence may be
considered as superseding the necessity of the general protoplasmic
circulation ; since it can scarcely be doubted that its function is to
maintain a continual movement of nutritive fluid among a system of
channels and vacuoles excavated in the substance of the body, some
of the vacuoles which are nearest the surface being observed to
undergo distention when the vesicle contracts, and to empty them-
selves gradually as it refills.

The general characters of Actinophrys, with a more or less com-
plete limitation of the pseudopodia to one portion of the body,
necessitated by its enclosure within a membranous or chitinous

CARPENTER OH CHB A BBAftTG CM EOT "l THE HI! 1ZOPODA. tOS

envelope, are presented by the genera %r i chad Urn, ,?, 'Blagidphryty
and Muylyphu, which are associated with it by MM. Claparede and

Lachmann in the family Aeti nophryna. \)\\\ they seem to me — 80
far as I can judge by the published desci -ipt ions of these animals,

which I have not myself bad the opportunity of examining in their

living state* — not less unmistakcaldy exhibited In the A<<intho-
■metrina and the Polycystina, which may be regarded as higher OF
more specialized forms of the same type. The radiating psomlopodia
of Acanthometra correspond precisely in all their character.- with
those of Actinophrys ; having the same rod-like tapering form, the
same regularly radiating arrangement, the same mutual isolation, and
the same slow movement of particles along their surface: some of
them, however, are enclosed in tubular siliceous sheaths, which appear
to be secreted from their surface ; and the union of the expanded
bases of these sheaths forms a sort of framework, that supports the
protoplasmic substance of the body. In this substance the differen-
tiation of endosarc and cctosarc has obviously proceeded further than
in Actinophrys ; and the endosarc contains a number of cell-like
bodies resembling those of the Thalassicollw. The animal of the -Poly-
cystma seems to correspond with Acanthometra in all essential par-
ticulars, the difference being only in the disposition of the siliceous
envelope ; and that of the Thalassicollina appeal's to be only a more
composite aggregation of the like structural components. For details
of the evidence of the relations of the last-named groups to each other
and to the preceding, I must refer to the memoir of Prof. Midler
already cited ; and his designation Kadiolaiua 1 adopt as that of the
group to which he applied it, with the addition of the family Act'rao-
phryna. That family, as I have endeavoured to show, really supplies
the typical form of the Order; the naked Actinophrys bearing the
same relation to the testaceous Polycystina (i'ov example) that the
naked Amoeba does to the testaceous Arcclla and DiJJlugia, or the
naked Lieberkuhnia to the testaceous Gromiila and Foraminifera.

III. — Erom the Actinophryna and the other Khizopods of the
order Radiolaria, the Amcebina seem to me to be very definitely dis-
tinguished by the more complete differentiation of the containing
and the contained portion of their sarcode-bodies. and by the entire
difference (as regards, at least, the typical forms of each group) in
the character of their pseudopodial extensions. The distinction be-
tween the ectosarc and the endosarc is far more clearly marked in
Amoeba than in Actinophrys ; the latter being much more fluid,
whilst the consistence of the former is much tinner. It is through
the endosarc alone that those coloured and granular particles are
1

* I am not aware that Acanllovietrr? have yet h« en soon uji.ni our roasts. Then-
seem, however, to abound in the North Sea, and should therefore, he looked for u|m.ii
our eastern shores, especially when the wind blows towards tliein. 'I lie Acautho-
virfra rchuuhh's, whieh abounds on ihe we-teni coast of .Norway, is discernible by
the nahed eyes a erimson led i:oiut.

VOL. I. — N. H. H. 3 0

46J< OKIGINAL ARTICLES.

diffused, on which the hue and opacity of the body depend; its central
portion seems to have an almost aqueous consistence, the granular
particles being seen to move quite freely upon one another, with every
change in the shape of the body ; but its peripheral portion is more
viscid, and graduates insensibly into the firmer substance of the
ectosarc. The ectosarc, which is perfectly pellucid, forms an almost
membranous investment to the endosarc ; still, it is not possessed of
such tenacity as to oppose a solution of its continuity at any point,
for the introduction of alimentary particles, or for the extrusion of
effete matter; and thus there is no evidence, in Amoeba and its
immediate allies, of the existence of any more definite orifice, either
oral or anal, than exists in other Ehizopods. It is asserted by
MM. Claparede and Lachmann, however, that an oral orifice does
exist in JPodostoma, a peculiar modification of the Amoeban type ; and
they think it not impossible that such an aperture may exist even in
Amceba, of which the lips might be exactly applied to one another,
as in Amphileptus, so as only to open for the ingestion of food. The
more advanced differentiation of the ectosarc and the endosarc of
Amoeba is made evident by the effects of re-agents. If, as Aiierbach has
shown, an Amceba radiosa be treated with a dilute alkaline solution,
the granular and molecular endosarc shrinks together and retreats
towards the centre, leaving the radiating extensions of the ectosarc
in the condition of coecal tubes, of which the walls are not soluble,
at the ordinary temperature, either in acetic or mineral acids, or in
dilute alkaline solutions ; thus agreeing with the envelope noticed
by Cohn as possessed by Paramecium and other ciliated Infusoria,
and with the containing membrane of ordinary animal cells. A
nucleus is always distinctly visible in Amceba, adherent to the inner
portion of the ectosarc, and projecting from this into the cavity
occupied by the endosarc ; when most perfectly seen, it presents the
aspect of a clear flattened vesicle surrounding a solid and usually
spherical nucleolus ; it is readily soluble in alkalies and first expands
and then dissolves, when treated with acetic or sulphuric acid of
moderate strength ; but when treated with diluted acids it is rendered
darker and more distinct, in consequence of the precipitation of a
finely granular substance in the clear vesicular space that surrounds
the nucleolus.

In all these particulars, therefore, the Amcebina present a nearer
approach to Ineusokia than is discernible among other Ehizopods ;
and hence it was not without good reason that Prof. Muller desig-
nated them " Infusorial Ehizopods." They tend towards Infusoria,
also, in their higher locomotive powers, obtaining their food by
actively going in search for it, instead of entrapping it and drawing
it into the substance of their bodies by the agency of their extended
pseudopodia. In fact, the pseudopodia are here very different organs
from those of either Beticiilaria or Badiolaeia, being rather lobate
extensions of the body itself, than appendages proceeding from its
surface-layers. They lire few in number, short, broad, and rounded ;

CABPEXTEB ON THE A U i; vm ! ;:\; I \ I or THE BHIZOPODi. 165

and their oulliiuvs present n sharpness Which indicates tluit the sub-
stance of which their exterior is composed possebooi considerable

tenacity. No movement of granules can be scon to take place along

the surface of the pseudopodia ; and when two of these organs come
into contact, they scarcely show any disposition c\en to mntnal
cohesion, still less to a J'usion of their substance. .Sometimes the
protrusion seems to be formed by the ectosaiv alone, but more com-
monly the endosarc also passes into it, and an active; current of
granules maybe seen to pass from what was prc\iuiislv the centre
of the body, into the protruded portion, when the latter id" undergoing
rapid elongation \ whilst a like current may set towards the centre
of the body from some other protrusion which is being withdrawn
into it. It is in this manner that an Amoeba moves from placet;)
place ; a protrusion like the finger of a glove being first formed, into
which the substance of the body itself is gradually transferred j and
another protrusion being put forth, either in the same or in some
different direction, so soon as this transference has been accomplished,
or even before it is complete. The kind of progression thus executed
by an Amoeba is described by most observers as a " rolling" move-
ment, this being certainly the aspect which it commonly seems to
present ; but it is maintained by MM. Claparede and Lachmann
that the appearance of rolling is an optical illusion, for that the
nucleus and contractile vesicle always maintain the same position
relatively to the rest of the body, and that " creeping," or reptation,
would be a truer description of their mode of movement. On this
view, these animals have their ventral constantly differential ed from
their dorsal surface, it being from the former alone that the pseudo-
podian extensions proceed ; and thus a transition would seem to be
indicated towards the testaceous Amcebina {Arcclla, Diffluyia, <fcc.)
in which the dorsal surface is invested by a shell, and the pseudopodia
are strictly limited to the ventral region. It is in the course of its
movement from place to place, that the Amoeba encounters particle*
which are fitted to ailbrd it nourishment ; and it appears to receive
such particles into its interior through any part of the ectosarc,
whether of the body itself or of any of its lobose expansions, in-
soluble particles which resist the digestive process being got rid of
in the like primitive fashion.

The Amoeban, like the Actinophryan, type shows itself in the
testaceous as well as in the naked form ; and it is of importance to
notice, that whilst the "test" of Arcella^ix formed by a lnemhranous
(probably chitinous) exudation from the animal itself, that of JDif-
flugia is chiefly made up of grains of sand, fragments of shell, or oilu r
foreign particles, cemented together. Hie resemblance of tin1 animals
of these two genera is so close, that DO systcmalist has ever proposed
to separate them by more than a generic distinction ; and if ilie dis-
similarity of the material of llieir "test'' be not admitted as a
differential character of grave importancej I can see no reason f r
attaching more weight to the distinc ion between the chitinous
of Gromia and the calcareous shell of the ordinary Foramini

466 OKIGENAL ARTICLES.

especially as this last is often replaced, either partially or completely,
by an envelope formed by the cementation of sandy particles.

Thus, then, Amoeba and its allies are distinguished from the
Actinophryna, by the yet higher manifestation of that tendency to
differentiation of the homogeneous protoplasma, which marks so
definite a distinction between the Actinophryna and the Gromida ;
and the distinction is indicated in the former case, as in the latter,
by the nature of the pseudopodian expansions, the lobose form of
which seems so characteristic of all the typical Amoebina, that they
may be appropriately ranged under the ordinal designation Lobosa.
It is quite true that these distinctions do not hold good in every
instance ; as there are osculant forms (such as the Amoeba porrecta
of Schultze) whose characters are so intermediate between those of
the typical Amoeba and of the typical Actinophrys that it is difficult
to say to which type they are most nearly allied. And in like
manner, judging from the characters of the pseudopodia in Schultze's
genera Lagynis and Squamulina, it may be doubted whether the true
place of those genera is in association with the Foraminifera, or
whether their relation is not really more intimate with the Actino-
phryna. But the existence of such osculant forms by no means
invalidates the principle of our classification, since their presence
only serves to supply, between the Orders into which I propose to
divide the Ehizopoda, the link which is necessary to their complete-
ness as natural groups.

It is an. interesting exemplification of the intimacy of the relation
between the form of the pseudopodia and the properties of the sar-
code-body of the Rhizopoda, that any small separated portion of
that body will behave itself after the characteristic fashion of its
type ; thus, if the shell of an Arcella be crushed, so as to force out
a portion of its sarcode, and this be detached from the rest, it will
soon begin to put forth lobose extensions like those of an Amoeba ;
whilst if the like operation be performed upon a Polystomella, or
any other of the Eoraminifera, the detached fragment of the proto-
plasm will extend itself into delicate ramifying and inosculating
pseudopodia, resembling those of Gromia. And this fact seems to
me to afford an additional justification of the employment of the
characters furnished by the pseudopodia as the basis of a systematic
arrangement of the class. The characters of the three Orders into
which I propose to distribute its various forms may be concisely
summed up as follows :- —

I. Beticulaeia. The body composed of homogeneous granular
protoplasm, without any distinction into ectosarc and endosarc;
neither nucleus nor contractile vesicle ; pseudopodia composed of
the same substance as the body, extending and multiplying them-
selves by minute ramification, and inosculating completely wherever
they come into contact ; a continual circulation of granular particles
throughout the viscid substance of the body and its extensions. This
Order consists of the Foraminifera and the Gromida, whose mutual
relations will be presently examined.

BPE5TEB OX T1IK ARRANGEMENT OF THE RHIZOPODA. -ti\7

II. Eadiolart.v. Incipient dillerenl iati.m of ,the protoplasmic,
Bubstance into endosarc and ectosarc, the former Bemi-nuid and gra-
nular, the latter more tenacious and pellu< id ; a aucleua and

tile vesicle; paeudoppdia rod-like, usually I o to

point, composed of the pame substance as the ectoaarc, exhibiting
little diapoaitiou either to ramify or to coaleace, haying a more or
less regular radiating arrangement, and not Bhowing any conatant
circulation of granules in tjheir Bubatance, although a movement of
particles adherent to their exterior is often to be diatinguiahecl The
type of thia order is Actinophrys, constituting, with its immediate
allies, the family Actinoplivijna ; but the Order also includes the
Acanthomcfrina, Polycystina, and Thalassicollina, by the last of
which this group is connected with the Sponges.

III. Lobosa. More complete differentiation of the protoplasmic
substance into endosarc and ectosarc, the former being a slightly
viscous granular liquid, and the latter approaching the tenacity of a
membrane: a nucleus and contractile vesicle ; pseudopodia few and
large, being in reality lobose extensions of the body which neither
ramify nor coalesce, having well-defined margins, and not exhibiting
any movement of granules on their surface, the circulation in their
interior being entirely dependent on the changes of form which the
body undergoes as a whole. This Order is composed of but a single
family, the Amoebina ; and it is the one which presents the nearest
approximation to the classes Infusoria and Gregarinlda.

Having thus explained what I conceive to be the true relations of
the Foramixifera to other Ehizopods, I purpose now to state the
views to which I have been led by the same mode of enquiry, in re-
gard to the classification of that group. And in the first place, it is
requisite to examine what is the physiological value of the separation
of the Monolhalamous, or Unilocular, forms from the Polythalamous, or
Multilocular, — a separation which has been hitherto adopted by all
systematists as one of primary importance, although Professor Keuss
has lately expressed himself doubtfully as to the correctness of its
principle.

There can be no doubt that, in common with all the lower forms
of animal as well as vegetable life, the Riiizopoda. tend to multiply
by a separation of continuously-growing parts of their bodies, which
may take the form either of fission or of gemmation, according as the
original body undergoes subdivision, or as it puts forth an extension
which eventually detaches itself. Among the Foraminifera proper,
whose bodies are enclosed in unyielding shells, multiplication by
fission cannot take place, except in that eari ice in

which the shell is not yet consolidated ; hut extension by gemmation
may go on without limit, the successively-formed gemmae usually
remaining in connection with each other and with their slock. The
progressive growth of the sarcode-substance caiiaea a portion of it to
project beyond the aperture of the shell ; and thja projecting portion

4G8 ORIGINAL ARTICLES.

possesses all the attributes of the body of which it is an extension,
and can maintain its existence With1 equal readiness, either in a se-
parate state or in continuity with the stock of which it is an offset.
Although, therefore, there are certain types of Foraminifera in which
such offsets appear invariably to separate themselves before the con-
solidation of the shell, so that the original body never adds to the
number of its segments, and the shell remains " monothalamous," —
whilst there are others in which they ordinarily remain in connection
with the original stock, so as progressively to augment the number
of the segments and of the chambers of the " polythalamous " shell,
often to an indefinite extent, — I cannot see any such difference be-
tween the physiological conditions of the newly-formed segment in
the two cases, as would be required to justify the erection of the
Monotlialamia into a distinct order. Moreover, we find that each of
these groups, as ordinarily constituted, contains forms which in prin-
ciple should rank with the other. Thus the continuous spiral shells
which are known as Spirillince or Cornuspirce, having their cavities
undivided by septa, are always ranked amoug Monotlialamia ; but as
they have the capacity for indefinite extension, which is characteristic
of the Polythalamia, they need nothing but segmental division to turn
them into Rotaliw or Spiroloculince. Hence, such shells though
actually monothalamous, are potentially polythalamous; and to rank
them with Gromice, Lagence, or Orbulince, whose increase can only be
effected by the complete detachments of the superfluous segments of
sarcode, and by the formation of new and independent envelopes for
these, — the enlargement of their shells being forbidden by their
shape, would be antagonistic to the very principle on which the dif-
ferentiation is based. I have recently been investigating another
type, not until lately ranked among Foraminifera, which presents a
condition of precisely the converse nature. In Dactylopora and Aci-
cularia (as I shall more fully explain in my forthcoming Monograph),
we have composite organisms of definite form made up by the aggre-
gation of chambers which have no internal communication with each
other, each being as distinct from the rest as the chambers of a heap
of Lagence, and being only united by external adhesion. Such or-
ganisms, therefore, although actually polythalamous, are essentially
monothalamous; since the sarcode-body, contained within each cham-
ber, is as independent of the bodies enclosed in the neighbouring
chambers, as it would have been if these chambers had been alto-
gether disconnected. Again, there are certain Polythalamia, the
successive chambers of whose shells, although formed by continuous
gemmation the one from the other, are so slightly connected as to
be easily separable by accidental violence, and of which the animals
can maintain their lives just as well when they are thus broken up
into distinct segments as when retaining their original continuity ;
such, again, may be regarded as potentially Monothalamous ; and
the fact that the segments of sarcode, as they were successively
budded off from the stock, formed their shelly investments before,

CAB OM THE AliiJANi.KMii.vr OF THE BHIZOFODA. Ki'.t

instead of after, their detachment from it, can pcftrcejyW admitted by

the Physiologisl as alone justify ing a:i ordinal ditl'crciit iat ion, which

is not borne out by other structural or physiological diversities.

Having shown in my former paper how completely fallacious is
the assumption of M. IVOrbigiiy that plan of growth affords the
key to the natural arrangement of Foraniinifera,---rai3ty classification
that is founded upon it necessarily bringing together generic types
which are physiologicalfy most distinct, and separating such as are
physiologically most nearly allied, — I shall now confine myself to a
concise exposition of what appear to me the principles on which
Natural Classification should be founded.

Looking at the Order Keticulauia as a whole, the only great
physiological distinction at present known to exist among the multi-
tudinous forms of animal life which it includes (our acquaintance
with the mode in which the generative function is performed in this
group being as yet so imperfect, that no differential characters can
be founded upon it), is that presented by the two modes in which
the pscudopodia originate, viz. : — either from the surface of the body
generally, or from a limited portion of it. The animals of the former
type, of which Botulia may be taken as an example, have a shell
whose surface is everywhere perforated with numerous closely set
pores ; and through these, as observation shows, the pscudopodia
extend themselves freely from each of the segments that occupies the
subjacent chambers. In those of the latter, of which Miliola may be
taken as the type, the walls of the chambers are entirely imperfora-
ted ; so that the pseudopodia can only issue from the single or mul-
tiple aperture, which leads to the last-formed chamber alone. The
fundamental importance of this distinction was perceived (as I have
already pointed out) by Dujardin ; and my own. enquiries, which
have been pursued on a basis altogether independent of his, have led
me most fully to recognize the merit of that far-sighted perception,
which would have been more likely to attract the notice it deserved,
if its author had been aware that, instead of being isolated from the
true Foraminifera by the characters in question, the Miliola are
really the representatives of that large group of Foraminifera which
are distinguished by the porcellanous texture of their shells.

Taking our stand, then, upon the limitation or diffusion of tho
origin of the pseudopodia— manifested in the imperforat ion or the
perforation of the testaceous envelope,^ — as a distinction of funda-
mental importance, we find that the Order Eetki i,ai;l\ may be sub-
divided by this character into two sections; and as it is) ronwnient
to base our systematic arrangement of the l'oraminifora upon the
characters furnished by the shell (though always hearing in mind that
these are of value only in so far as they may be taken as exponents of
the characters of the animal) these two sections or sub-orders maybe
respectively designated Impekeokata and Plkiokata.

In the sub-order Impebfohata, the testaceous envelope pr
itself under three very different conditions, the membranous, thepor-
cdlanous, and the arenaceous ; and upon this difference we may

470 ORIGINAL ARTICLES.

group together the whole aggregate of " imperforate" genera under
the three families Gromida, Miliolida, and Lituolida. The family
Gromida presents in Lieberhiihnia the nearest approach to a naked
representative of this Order ; the membranous envelope of its sarcode-
body being reduced to such extreme tenuity, as only to be distinctly
visible where it surrounds the pedicle, from which the pseudopodia
are given off; but it is not a little remarkable, and is very significant
of the physiological value of the character, that notwithstanding the
absence of any shelly wall to limit the extension of the sarcode-body
into pseudopodia, these are just as much restricted to one region as if
the body had been entirely shut up within an envelope pervious only
at one spot. In Gromia, the membranous envelope is of greater firm-
ness, and presents a wide aperture ; and the physiological condition of
its animal so closely corresponds, except as regards the segmentation
of the body, with that of the animal of Miliola, that I cannot see any
ground for separating (as M.M. Claparede and Lachmann have done)
the Gromida from the Poraminifera proper. Thus I am led to regard
Gromia as the unilocular type of the imperforate series ; holding the
same place in it that Lagena and Orbulina do in the perforated.

The family Miliolida includes an extensive range of generic forms,
from the simple undivided Comuspira (the Spirillina foliacea of Prof.
"Williamson) to the highly complex and minutely-subdivided Orbito-
lites. But all these forms are so intimately united with each other,
as to constitute an extremely natural assemblage. They all agree in
the possession of an imperforate calcareous shell, the substance of
which is " porcellanous," being opaque-white by reflected light, and
brownish-yellow when sufficiently thin for light to be transmitted
through it. The wall of this chamber is simply joined on to that
which preceded it, so that the septa between the cavities of adjacent
chambers are single, being composed merely of the portions of the
walls of the older chambers, which are embraced by the newer. The
communications between the successive chambers, and between the
last chambers and the exterior (whether formed by a single large
aperture as in Miliola, or by the multiplication of smaller pores as in
Peneroplis,) are very free ; having to give passage not merely to
stolons which are subservient to the multiplication of segments, but
to bands of sar code-sub stance large enough to transmit with facility,
to the segments that are furthest removed from the exterior, the nutri-
ent materials obtained by the pseudopodia which issue from the last
alone. Neither " intermediate skeleton," nor " canal-system" for its
nutrition, presents itself in the Poraminifera of this family ; although
a sort of representation of it exists in the most complex form of that
very aberrant type Dactylopora, which, in addition to the aggregate
of separate chambers, has a deposit of solid shell-substance, traversed
by a regular system of passages that has no communication with the
chambers, but seems to have been in connection with a sarcode-body
outside of them.

We occasionally find among the Miliolida that the surface of the
shell is formed of arenaceous particles ; but these are embedded in a

CABPlEXTEB ON Tin: AJIRAXGEMEKT of THE BHIZOPODA. 17L

cement formed of the proper shell-substance, which is never wmtingj
and the closeaccordance in every other character between shells which
are thus Bliperficially altered and such us conform to the ordinary
type, forbids our regarding the former as more fhan varie tally distinct
from the latter. The case is very different, hotferi ''• with regard to
certain genera in which the power of forming a proper shell Beemsto
be altogether Wanting ; the testaceous envelope being essentially com-
posed of substance directly derived from without, the only material
furnished by the animal being the organic glue thai holds them
together, their substance is generally composed of* a wry fine cement
in Which coarser particles are imbedded; the former Sometimes predo-
minating, so that the shell is smoolhed off on the surface; whilst if
the latter be in excess, the surface of the shell is rough. Of this jam il y
the genus Liluola is the most characteristic ; and the variety offbnns
into which it passes, several of them so closely resembling those of
other genera as to have been mistaken for them, would not be readily
conceived by any but such as have made a special study of them.*
In the genus Trochammina (Parker and Eupert Jones) We have an
instance of a gradational transition from the monothalamous to the
polythalamous type ; for whilst its lowest form is a continuous ver-
micular spiral (the Spirillina arenacea of Prof. Williamson), this
comes to present, in some instances, a degree of segmental division
scarcely inferior to that which some of the most vermiculate forms of
Rotalia are reduced. The genus Valvulina forms the transition
between this group and the " perforated" series ; for whilst the prin-
cipal part of its " test" is uniformly made up of an aggregation of
sandy particles, leaving no such pores for the exit of pseudopodia, as
can be readily discerned in the arenaceous Textularice, this has a basis
of true shell- sub stance in which pores can be distinguished.

In the whole of the sub-order Perforata, the shell is calcareous,
and is formed of a dense hyaline or vitreous substance, which is tra-
versed by tubuli running straight from the cavity of the chambers to
the external surface, whose diameter usually ranges from l-3000th
of an inch (as in Rotalia and Rlanorbulind) to less than l-10,000th
(as in Operculum and Cycloclypeus). There can be no question that
even the smallest of these tubuli are large enough to transmit the
finest threads into which the protoplasmic substance may sub-divide
itself: and looking to their remarkable continuity through suCces
layers of shell substance, when (as in Operculina) the earlier whorls
are completely embraced by the later, there can, I think, he no rea-
sonable doubt that, through their means, a fliredl communication is
maintained between even the earliest and innermost segments and
the surrounding mediiim.f This, of course, renders the successive

* My knowledge of these arenaceous types has been entirely obtained through
the kindness of Messrs. Parker ami Rupert J<

j The finely tubular shell-substance of Opefculind and its allies presents a
very striking resemblance to dentine in everything except the raniitication of the

TOL. I. — H". If. If. BP

472 ORIGINAL ARTICLES.

segments much more independent of one another, than they are in the
porcellanous type; and their isolation is marked by these two im-
portant peculiarities in the structure of the shell, — first, that each
segment has its own complete wall, so that the septa between suc-
cessive chambers are double, — and second, that the apertures of com-
munication through the septa are far smaller than in porcellanous
shells, as is seen in comparing a Vertebralina or Miliola with a
Nodosaria or Cristellaria, or, in the unilocular types, on comparing
the aperture of a Gromia with that of a Lagena. It is in this type
alone that we meet with an " intermediate skeleton " nourished by a
" canal system " that is connected with the cavities of the chambers ;
although this feature is wanting in the lower types of the series, yet
its presence in the higher, most strongly differentiates them from the
forms of the porcellanous type to which they bear the closest resem-
blance. In certain genera of this as of the porcellanous series, we find
the surface of the shell occasionally roughened by the adhesion of are-
naceous particles; but these are imbedded in true shell- sub stance,
which is never wanting ; and as the very same forms may be altogether
free from arenaceous deposit, its presence is obviously not essential
but is (so to speak) accidental, and constitutes no ground for even
specific distinction.

As the texture of the shell throughout the whole of this series is
essentially the same, — the variation in the diameter of its tubuli
being the only difference of any mark, — we have not the same easy
means of subdividing the Perforated group into families as we possess
in the case of the Imperforate ; and this division must consequently
be based on the aggregate of characters supplied by the coarseness or
firmness of the tubuli, the mode of communication between the cham-
bers, and the general plan of growth. To enter into details upon these
points would be foreign to my present purpose, which has been
merely to set forth the general results at which I have arrived ; and
these I now offer to the criticism of such Naturalists as interest
themselves in the study of the group to which they relate.

tubuli ; and it comes to be a very interesting inquiry what relation there may be
between these two substances as to the mode of their formation. There is reason
to consider the shell-substance of the Foraminifera as an excretion from the proto-
plasmic mass of which the body itself is composed ; just as the cellulose wall of the
vegetable cell, which may be consolidated by carbonate of lime (as in Corallines) or
by silcx (as in Diatoms) is an excretion from the contained endochrome. The
new lamella? of shell successively added to the external surface of the preceding, in
cases in which the spiral lamina of each new whorl completely invests the old, would
block up its pores, if the continuity of the tubuli were not maintained by the exten-
sion of the pseudopodia through the freshly consolidating substance, and this, by
moulding itself upon the pseudopodia that issue from the orifices of the subjacent
surface, will itself be rendered tubular, and will continue to allow the passage of the
pseudopodia from the earliest chambers through the last formed layer of shell. And
I would suggest it as a subject for inquiry whether in the formation of dentine and
other calcified tubular tissues of higher animals, the tubular structure is not really the
result of the consolidation of an excretion-substance around filamentous prolongations
of the active protoplasmic substratum from which it is exuded.

173
XLVIIL— On Certain Points tn tin; Anatomy and Physiology

OF THE DlBRANCHIATE CEPHALOPODA. By A lkmy I Tin ic< >ck, Esq.
[Read at the Meeting of the British Agnation, September, 1861.]
I propose, on the present occasion, to give some results at which
I have arrived respecting the anatomy ami physiology of the
Dibranchiate Cephalopoda; whose structure { ha\'e Been etfgage'd
investigating: for some time past. My observations will lie confined
almost entirely, to the so-called water system and to the blood
system; and on these points I shall speak as concisely as possible,
reserving for some future opportunity detailed accounts of them,
when I hope to be able to lay before those interested in such sub-
jects a memoir treating on the general anatomy of this order of the
Cephalopoda.

First, then, with regard to the so-called water system. In the
Octopodidce this consists of five chambers; namely, two large cham-
bers, containing the vense cava1 ; two small lateral ones, which open
into the above, and which communicate by long slender tubes with
the fifth, the posterior or "genital chamber," which always contains
the special genital organ, the ovary or testis, according to the sex.

The two tirst-mentioned chambers lie along each side of the
median line, separated by a membranous partition, and immediately
within the abdominal wall. The liver lies in front of, and above, the
ovary or testis behind them. Each opens into the branchial chamber
by a nipple-shaped orifice placed near to the root of the gill. These
two chambers contain the two venas cava?, with their glandular ap-
pendages. The convoluted or upper portion of the intestine, and a
limited portion of the branchial hearts, also project into these cavities.
Over all these organs the membranous wall of the chamber is
reflected; but on the glandular appendages of the vena1 ca\;e if is
scarcely, if at all, demonstrable. I shall uniformly designate t liese the
" renal chambers," as they always contain the veiwr cava* with their
glandular appendages, which latter undoubtedly perform, in whole or
in part, the function of a kidney, as is now generally admitted.

Besides the external nipple-shaped openings already specified,
there are other two orifices leading into thv^c chambers. Those
orifices are situated in the dorsal wall of the chamber, close to the
base of the nipple-shaped oriJices; and establish a communication
between the renal chambers and two small, elongated cavities placed
between the wall of the former and the lateral walls of the abdomen.
These orifices are also somewhat nipple-formed, with the lips opening
outwardly, or into the renal chambers, and are placed at ihe anterior
extremity of the small chambers ; the other c\t rendu . which is some-
what enlarged, abuts upon the branchial heart, and encloses within it
the so-called "fleshy appendage-' aiiached to that blood-propelling
organ. The interior of these small chambers is longitudinally and
irregularly laminated, with the surface of a glandular appearance, and

474 OEIGItfAL ARTICLES.

a long, delicate tube connects each with the chamber containing the
genital organ.

The genital chamber contains only the genital organ, whether
ovary or testis, which is attached to the anterior wall of the chamber ;
the wall being reflected over the organ, as is clearly seen at the point
of attachment. The membranous wall, however, very soon becomes
so completely incorporated with the organ as to be no longer demon-
strable. In the female, there are two ovarian outlets from this
chamber, as well as the two already noticed as communicating with
the small lateral chambers. In the male, there are three outlets only,
two leading to the same small lateral chambers, and one into the vas
deferens.

Thus it appears that all these so-called aquiferous chambers
open externally, through the nipple-formed orifices situated in
the branchial chamber. But, as might be expected, they have no
direct communication with the blood system; at least, I have hitherto
failed to discover any.

In the LoUginidce we find these chambers considerably modified,
and reduced to two in number, — the renal and genital. The former
is no longer divided into two by a longitudinal median septum, but
forms one large continuous cavity — the pericardial of most writers ;
though it never contains the heart, so far as I have observed. In
this group, however, it holds, in addition to the vense cavse and their
glandular appendages, the hepatic ducts, with their attached pancreatic
glands. This is the case in Loligo sagittata, L. media, Onyclwteuthis
Lichtensteinii, Sepia officinalis, Sepiola Rondeletii, and Ommastrephes
todariis. In this last, the lower portion of the intestine and the
greater part of the ink-bag, and in Sepia, one half of the stomach and
the whole of the spiral caecum, are also lodged within this chamber.
And, in all the species, a small portion of the branchial hearts likewise
protrudes a little into it. The nipples, which bring this chamber into
communication with the branchial chamber, are placed further for-
ward than in the Octopodidce.

The genital chamber is very much increased in dimensions in this
group, occupying the whole of the abdomen from the liver backwards
to the end of the tail. It contains, besides the testis or ovary, with
the single exception above alluded to, the stomach and caecum ; also
the branchial hearts and their appendages, a small portion of the
hearts only protruding into the renal chamber, as already noticed.
The latter organs are placed in two recesses, situated at the sides
towards the anterior end of the cavity, and which communicate
freely with the chamber.

All these organs are covered with the membrane forming the wall
of the chamber, which is reflected over them in the manner of a peri-
toneum ; but it is not easily demonstrable, except at the points where
the various organs are attached to the wall, and there it is always
seen doubling back upon them. It is thus distinctly visible on the
stomach, over which it passes backwards, forming a fold carrying the

HANCOCK ON TTTE ANATOMY OF OnuaMKATE CEPHALOPODA. VH

blood-vessels and nerves, which fold unites thi«- \ iscii- to tlie anterior
extremity of the genital organ. The latter is also attached to the

posterior exuvinii y of the chamber by the tame membrane in
Ommm l replies and J.oligo ; but in iSfeptfi and SepioJa this extremity
is free.

There are two oviduets in Qmmastremfrm? all the other species
that I have dissected have only one, which is situated on the right
side. They open through the lateral Avails of the chamber, and lit;
apparently, between these walls and that forming the boundary of the
abdomen, The male intromittent ongan, which is always angle, is
situated on the Fight side, and the vas deferens coinnnmieates with
the chamber by a small orifice opening through the wall of the
same side.

Besides the genital outlets, there are other two. as in the Octo-
podidce, which bring this chamber into communication with the venal
cavity. Here, however, in the place of long, fine, duct-like tubes,
there are short, wide, flattened channels, which pass from the sines
of the chamber in front, and dipping downwards and forwards, be-
tween the wall of the body and that of the renal chamber, open into
the latter immediately behind the nipples that communicate with the
branchial chamber. These channels, which open into the renal
chamber by slit-formed orifices, remind us of the manner in which
the ureters open into the bladder in the higher animals.

There can be no doubt that the genital chambers in the two
groups are homologous. The feet that, in both, they always contain
the special genital organ — that the excretory channels of these organs
always open into them in the same manner— and that they are always
in communication with the renal chamber, sufficiently establishes this
relationship.

The two additional, small, lateral chambers in the Octopodida are
nothing more than enlargements on the channels of communication
between the two chambers. Indeed, the chamber in the LoVujinidcc
diflers from that in the Octopodida chiefly in the fact, that the former
contains, in addition to the special genital organ, the stomach and
caecum; these organs, in the latter, being placed in what M. Edwards,
in the "Voyage en Sieile," premiere partie, p. 123, designates the
visceral or abdominal chamber; which in the Lcliginidce is either
wholly or in part wanting. These digestive organs are therefore
developed backwards, and are consequently thrust, as it were, into
the genital chamber, bulging in its anterior wall, which becomes
reflected over them in the manner we have seen.

The true nature of these chambers is a matter of no little in'
We have seen nothing to warrant the idea that they are directly
connected with tbej vascular system, and certainly nothing to ju-oxe
that they are for the purpose of receiving water from the exterior;
but rather, on the contrary, that they form part of an apparatus for
ejecting from the system the effete, nitrogenous, or urinary matters,
and along with them the redundant (luids. J3ut we mm I a

476 OEiaiNAL AETICLES,

further remarks on this subject until we have taken a glance at the
vascular system.

According to Milne Edwards, the blood system in these animals is •
incomplete, as it is in all other mollusks. And in proof of this, a
large sinus, or lacune, is referred to in the Octopodidcd, which is
asserted to be the homologue of the abdominal or visceral chamber
usually observed in the Mollusca. This sinus is situated on the dorsal
region of the body, and extends nearly the whole length of the animal.
It is divided by constrictions into three compartments ; the anterior,
or buccal, the median, or oesophageal, and the posterior, or gastric.
With the exception of the anterior portion, which lies in the midst of
the fleshy mass forming the base of the arms, this compound sinus
is placed between the liver and the wall of the body. The posterior
division communicates with the median portion by an orifice, not
much wider than is sufficient to allow of the easy passage of the lower
extremity of the oesophagus, or crop. It contains the gizzard, the
spiral stomach or caecum, and the hepatic ducts. The gastric organs
are suspended in the centre of this chamber by a sort of mesentery,
which is perforated, so as to allow the free circulation of the blood
which flows in this great sinus. The median division holds within it
part of the oesophagus, the crop, the posterior salivary glands, and
the aortic trunk. It is much and suddenly constricted in front, on its
passage through the nervous collar to join the anterior, or buccal
division, within which are found the anterior portion of the oesophagus,
the buccal organ, and the anterior salivary glands.

The whole of this great sinus is lined throughout by a membrane,
the peritoneal membrane of Milne Edwards, which is reflected upon
all the organs it contains; and the mesentery, before alluded to, is
formed by a duplicature of this same membrane. It is also seen dis-
tinctly forming a sheath to the aorta, which floats freely in the centre
of the cavity, and it can be readily traced on all the organs, though it
is for the most part incorporated with their tissues, so as to be
scarcely, if at all, discernible.

Three branches from the venae cavse open into this great blood
sinus ; two into the posterior, and one into the median portion. The
latter opens on the right side of the oesophagus, behind and close to
the point where the aorta enters the chamber.

Kow, the lining membrane of the sinus is continuous with that
forming the wall of these trunk veins : and it is almost impossible to
resist the conclusion that the great sinus results from the expansion
and fusion of these venous trunks. Indeed, I should have been much
inclined to adopt Delle Chiaje's conclusion, alluded to by Milne
Edwards, that this is a veritable venous sinus, even had nothing else
turned up to elucidate this interesting point : we have evidence, how-
ever, which appears sufficient to set this matter at rest.

Milne Edwards says that in the Calmars, or those Cephalopods
with ten tentacles, the" abdominal sinus has entirely disappeared, and
that the lacunary portion of the circulation is in them confined to the

HANCOCK OX THE ANATOMY OF DIBHANCII I A 1 i: CEPHALOPODA. 477

head. So far as I have yet examined the evnera Lolirjo and Sepia, it
appears thai the abdominal portion of the great blool simn is really

wauling, as is asserted by this di.-t ingiiis'ird I'ivim-Ii :i i i.-i t < »i i i i.-^t ; but in
Qnvmastrephe* todarits this is bo! the rase, the middle portion (.f i!p'
sinus still existing in a -modified form. The posterior division lias
certainly disappeared, and with it the two posterior venous trunks
which pass from it to the vena' cava1. The anterior venous trunk o\
however, present, and passes forward 1 > \ the side of the aorla, and
with il aseends until it reaches the dorsal surface of t lie liver, exact ly
as it does in the Octopodidce. The two vessels then run along \'>>v a
short distance by the side of the oesophagus, when the venous irunk
suddenly expands, and, enclosing that tube within it, forms for it a
Wide sheath. In tins state, with the aorta imbedded in the wall of
the sheath, the oesophagus and vein reach the salivary glands, when
the vein or sheath again expands, and forms a pouch for the reception
of these organs. The oesophageal sinus thus formed, and carrying
within it the oesophagus, salivary ducts, and buccal branches of
the aorta, passes through the nervous collar, and becomes conti-
nuous, in the usual way, with the anterior or buccal division of the
sinus.

Here, then, we have a modified visceral sinus ; and so modified,
that its true nature is patent enough. In the first place, it cannot
be doubted that this is the homologue of the so-called visceral
chamber in the Octopodidce ; or, rather, of what has been termed the
oesophageal or median division of it. It contains the same organs, is
situated in the same position, and communicates in like manner with
the anterior or buccal division of the sinus and with the left vena
cava. I have just said it contains the same organs. The aorta, how-
ever, might be supposed to be an exception to this; but as it lies
apparently in the wall of the sinus, and not merely attached to it, it
may be considered to rest virtually within the sinus, — the wall of the
sinus itself, as in the Octopodidce, being reflected over it.

This modified visceral sinus lies packed in a rather loose areolar
tissue, but can be easily isolated ; so that no doubt can exist as to
the fact, that its wall is really an expansion of that of the venous
trunk, which commuuicates with the vena cava. And thus we arrive
at the conclusion that the so-called visceral chamber in the Octo-
podidce is a veritable venous sinus, with its own proper wall.

As this so-called abdominal or visceral cavity is the only hiatus in
the vascular system, pointed out by Milne Edwards, we might perhaps
assume, since we see that this is really a venous expansion, that in
these animals we have a completely closed blood system, with proper
walls throughout. There is one point, however, which appears still
to require elucidation before we can linally adopt this conclusion.
The existence of capillaries has not yet perhaps been sulliciently de-
monstrated. Milne Edwards apparent ly believes in their presence ;
but he has not described them, neither arc his figures satisfactory on
this point. And! am sorry that I cannot myself speak to the fact with

478 OEIGINAL ARTICLES.

sufficient confidence ; but as I have succeeded in injecting a minute
network of vessels on the stomach in one instance, and that not under
the most favourable circumstances, I cannot doubt that the peripheral
portion of the vascular system is as complete as the central, and that
I shall be able to demonstrate this so soon as I shall obtain suitable
and fresh specimens. Neither must we forget that Kolliker (Entwick-
elungsgeschichte der Cephalopoden), states that he has observed
capillary vessels in the embryo of Sepia, and that H. Muller describes
them. We may therefore, I think, fairly assume, for the present,
that the vascular system is throughout supplied with proper walls.
And here the question naturally arises, How then does the chyle
enter into the circulation ?

From whatever point of view we look at this important question,
we find it beset with difficulties. Supposing, for instance, that we
adopt the opinion of Milne Edwards, that the great dorsal blood sinus
is nothing more than a visceral chamber, more or less developed,
forming an extensive hiatus in the continuity of the vascular system,
it is not easy to see how the chyle could find its way into this reser-
voir, even were it devoid of walls. In those mollusks which have the
intestine floating in the visceral chamber, the chyle may be supposed
to exude through the walls of that tube, and thus at once pass into
the circulation. But in the Cephalopoda the intestine is not so
situated. On the contrary, it is placed on the ventral, or opposite
side of the body, having the liver above it. It is not, however, in
contact with that viscus, but is separated from it by a stout muscular
membrane, which entirely cuts the intestine off from all communi-
cation with every portion of the so-called visceral chamber. In fact,
in most of the Loliginidce, the greater portion of the intestine is
placed, along with the great cephalic vein and duct of the ink-bag,
in a confined space, bounded above, by this membrane, below, by the
external wall of the abdomen, and behind, by that of the renal
chamber : in front, the space is closed by the coalescence of the said
membrane and the abdominal wall. And here the intestine lies
closely packed in juxta-position with the above-mentioned organs; the
whole being bound together and firmly attached to the surrounding
walls by areolar tissue. In the Octopodidce, the intestine is also to a
great extent similarly situated ; but the convoluted portion is thrust
further back between the wall of the renal chamber and that of the
right side of the aMomen. How, then, the chyle is to find its way
from the intestine to the so-called visceral chamber it is impossible
to say. Milne Edwards does not explain how this is effected : on the
contrary, his injections prove that the visceral chamber is bounded
by a wall, and is entirely cut off from the space in which the intestine
is placed.

The difficulty is not much lessened by assuming the absence of
capillaries ; for nearly all the viscera, whose veins might be supposed
to take up the chyle mingled with the extravasated blood, are con-
fined in chambers which are equally cut off from the space in which

HANCOCK ON TTTE ANATOMY OF DIB1UNCITTATE OErnALOPODA. 470

the intestine is placed. The venous radicles of the abdominal walls
in the vicinity of the intestine migfet possibly abtotb the ehj Le ; bud

fche anatomy of the parts shows nothing to warrant such an opinioiL

After weighing this point with much care, I am foreed to the oou-
clusiun, which must have been generals* adopted when the macular
system in the Mollusca was thought to be complete, that the ab-
sorption is effected through the instrumentality of the intestinal veins
themselves, which are amply provided, and arc e\ cry way suitable, for
such a purpose. There are usually two or more such veins ; and in
the LoliginidcB they are placed symmetrically, on each side of the
alimentary tube, and have the portions which lie within the renal
chamber covered with glandular appendages, similar to those that
garnish the vena? cava?. They always open into the vena? cava?, or
into the great cephalic vein, close to the point where the latter gives
origin to the former, and are richly provided with twigs.

Now, it would seem that it must be through the agency of the
capillaries of these vessels that the chyle, or nutritive fluid, finds its
way into the circulation. These capillaries probably penetrate to the
folds of the mucous membrane that lines the intestinal tube, and there
assuming the office of lacteals, in addition to that of veins, take up,
by a species of endosmosis, the nutritive products of digestion. Or,
it may be that, spreading out over the surface of this portion of the
alimentary tube, they there meet with and absorb the exuded chylous
fluid.

There is nothing that should startle us in the idea that these
veins act in a double capacity, for everywhere throughout the animal
kingdom we observe one and the same organ performing several
functions, until the division of labour in organic life is fully con-
summated. And in the embryo of the higher animals the absorption
of the nutritive matters is actually effected by the sole agency of
the vascular system. Thus, in the embryo of the fowl, the yolk is
absorbed by the blood-vessels of the germinal membrane ; and the
nourishment of the mammalian embryo is accomplished by the aid of
the vascular tufts of the umbilical vessels, which likewise absorb the
required oxygen from the blood of the parent. So that, in the latter
case, these blood-vessels do not only act as lacteals, but also perform
the function of lungs.

The chyle, then, in the Dihrancldate Cephalopoda appears to be
absorbed in this way by the intestinal veins, and to be poured by
them, mixed with the blood coming from the intestinal tube, into the
vena? cava?, and there commingled with the blood returning from all
parts of the system, to be subjected, on its way through the branchial
hearts to the aerating organs, to the action of the renal follicles.

These hearts are of a very peculiar appearance ; so much so that
their cardiac nature has been denied. Their walls arc exceedingly
thick, soft and spongy, and are composed, for the most part, of
nucleated granular cells. On this account they are considered by

VOL. I. — N. H. K. 3 Q

480 ORIGINAL ARTICLES.

some anatomists to be glandular organs,* which undoubtedly they
are ; but it is erroneous to assert that they " contain no trace of mus-
cular fibres." Such fibres assuredly exist, and are most plentiful,
lining the inner surface of the cavity, where they form numerous
circular meshes of various sizes, bordering the orifices of the channels,
that permeate the substance of the organ in all directions. -Fibres,
also, pass in every direction through the glandular mass of the walls.
There can, therefore, be no question as to their being blood-propelling
organs, though they are at the same time glandular.

Attached to these curious compound organs are the so-called
" fleshy appendages" before alluded to, the true nature of which
is still an enigma. They are usually of a rounded form, smooth
externally, with the interior cavernous, wrinkled, and irregularly
laminated. They are attached to the heart by a short, constricted
peduncle and, on the opposite surface, there is an irregularly-formed
opening, leading into the interior. The walls of the organ are com-
posed almost entirely of a soft, tender parenchyma, formed, for the
most part, of vascular ramifications, the trunks of which, three or
four in number, communicate with the interior of the branchial heart,
through the peduncle. The walls of these trunks and of the peduncle
are composed of stout, tough membrane. The cavity of the appendage
does not communicate with that of the heart, but opens, as we have
seen, externally, or into the chamber within which the organ is
placed, so that the fluid surrounding it will bathe its inner as well as
its outer surface.

On examining microscopically, the membrane lining the inner
surface, it is seen to be covered with minute, obtuse, cylindrical
papillae, filled with very small granular cells.

Difficult as it has been to determine the anatomy of this organ, it
is still more so to assign to it its proper function, though it is evi-
dently of much importance in the economy of these animals. We
have seen, in the Loliginidw, that these appendages lie within the great
genital chamber, and are bathed by the fluid therein contained.
And where, as in the Octopodidw, this chamber is modified, there is a
special apparatus provided, by means of which the appendages are
still kept in contact with the fluid coming from that chamber. They
therefore appear to have some relation to this fluid, the nature of
which it becomes of importance to examine.

But first as to the genital chamber itself, and the others asso-
ciated with it. In the Octoj)odid&, as we have seen, there are five of
these chambers, and only two in the Loliginidce. These two, how-
ever, are homologically equivalent to the five in the former; which are
made up by the renal chamber being divided by a septum, and by
the two small additional, lateral chambers containing the cardiac
appendages, the lateral chambers themselves being nothing more than

* Anatomy of the Invertebrata, by C. Th. v. Siebold, translated by W. J. Bur-
nett, p. 292.

HANCOCK OX THE ANATOMY OF DIBRAXCllI LTE CEPHALOPODA. 481

developments of the passages connecting the genital with the renal
chamber.

As tlit* glandular appendages of the venaa cava* are now generally
acknowledged to be of a renal nature, the office of the chamber con-
taining them is. apparently, to receive the urine as it la secreted, and
then to expel it through the nipple-shaped orifices situated in the
branchial chamber. And the genital, which we have swu communicates
with the renal chamber, may be looked upon as an extension of the
latter; the same membrane undoubtedly forming the walls of both
chambers. In the renal chamber proper this membrane is iii part
specialized, forming the glandular appendages attached to the \ena-
cavffl, the blood channels themselves only supplying the vessels that
permeate these organs. The effete, nitrogenous and more solid
matters of the urine are probably eliminated by these glandular appen-
dages, which take upon themselves the function of the urinary tu-
bules of the kidneys of the higher animals ; while the other great
chamber, the genital, receives the fluid, perhaps little more than
water, that may be supposed to flow from the arterial capillaries of
the various organs placed within it. Assuming this to be the case,
then this chamber will be related functionally to these capillaries as
the capsule of the malphigian tuft is to the capillaries of the tuffc
itself. The fact appears to be, that the kidney in these, as in most
other mollusks, is diffused, or not fully specialized ; but nevertheless
here, as in the higher animals, the more solid products of the urinary
secretion are abstracted by the agency of secreting cells, and the
fluids principally by the action of mere capillary blood-vessels.

This, then, is apparently the primary function of these so-called
water chambers ; but lymph may also be supposed to escape into
them during the act of nutrition, and mingle with their fluid con-
tents. This, however, is perhaps more strictly the case with regard
to the genital chamber, in which the fluid is probably little else than
lymph and pure water ; the valvular nature of the orifices connecting
this chamber with that containing the glandular appendages prevent-
ing the fluids of the latter passing into the former. The deleterious
urinary matters are consequently always confined to the renal cham-
ber proper.

Now wre have seen that the cardiac appendages are always bathed
by this fluid, both externally and internally, however the parts may
be modified; that their lining membrane is raised into folds and
wrinkles, which are clothed with minute papilla?, thus giving great
increase of surface ; that the papilla? are filled with granular cells, and
are in connexion with a highly vascular parenchyma, and that the
trunks of the vessels permeating this parenchyma, open into the
branchial hearts. It is therefore evident, from the structure of theso
enigmatical organs, that they arc well calculated for the selection
and absorption of fluid matters. I would suggest, then, that we see
in these cardiac appendages an apparatus for the return to the system
of the extravasated lymph that may have escaped into the genital

482 OKIGIFAL AETICLES.

chamber, and that consequently we have here a rudimentary form of
the lymphatic system.

This suggestion is to some extent corroborated by the nature of
the branchial hearts, into the midst of the glandular walls of which the
lymph is apparently thrown, and there probably undergoes some as-
similating influence, on its passage into the circulation, like that which
is supposed to be exercised by the spleen, and the other glandular ap-
pendages in connexion with the lymphatic system of the higher animals.

It would thus appear that these so-called water chambers form a
diffused kidney, having, probably in connexion with it, a rudimentary
lymphatic system. It is, however, generally believed that they receive
water into their cavities from the exterior ; but it is not easy to con-
ceive for what purpose the raw element should be thus admitted to
bathe the surfaces of the various delicate organs that lie within these
cavities. There is nothing to give colour to such an opinion, except
the fact that the renal chamber opens externally ; and yet it would
have been rather extraordinary if no such orifice had existed to
admit of the escape of the urine. And, moreover, it is evident that
this opening, which is, so far as my experience extends, always more
or less nipple-formed, is ill calculated for the ingress of fluid, while,
on the contrary, it is perfectly adapted for its egress. The same is
the case with regard to the passages of communication between the
renal chamber and the other portions of this so-called water system.
This is most strikingly so in the Loliginidce, in which it would
seem impossible for the fluid in the renal, to pass in a backward
direction into the genital chamber ; though the passages are most
admirably formed to allow the flow of the fluid in the opposite direc-
tion,— the tubes connecting the two chambers opening into the renal
chamber, much in the same manner as the ureters do into the bladder
of the higher animals.

Neither have I yet been able to satisfy myself of the existence of
any water canals, or system of water chambers, opening externally in
the neighbourhood of the head or tentacles. Some writers appear to
have taken the olfactory openings for orifices leading into such
aquiferous passages or chambers, and probably some of the other
openings described, are nothing more than mucous pores. But this
branch of the subject requires further investigation.

Before concluding, one or two points of detail may be mentioned
in connexion with the vascular system. "With regard to the heart, I
can find nothing deserving the name of pericardium. The renal
chamber has been so designated ; but, as we have seen that the heart
is never placed within it, this is evidently a misnomer. The heart, in
some of the Loliginidce, lies within the genital chamber, but is not
enclosed in a special receptacle. The membrane, forming the wall of
the chamber, is apparently reflected over it, though it is so completely
incorporated with the surface of the organ as not to be demonstrable.
In the Octopodidce the heart lies in the cellular tissue, between
the renal and genital chambers, and is more or less enveloped by the

HANCOCK OX THE ANATOMY OF DIBBAM 11 1 ATI: CEPHALOPODA. 483

wall of the former : but here, as in the other group, there is no
pericardial sac.

The heart itself is strong and muscular, and fche fibres are of the
striated kind. Those of the branchial hearts are also apparently
striated, but the stria* are less distinct, owing perhaps to the state of
preservation of the specimen examined Striated fibre has likewise
been observed in these parts by H. Midler.

The ascending aorta, on reaching the cranium, is divided into two
nearly equal portions, each of which has, near its origin, a conspicuous
bulbous enlargement. Numerous branches radiate from these bulbs,
and are distributed to the brain, to the eyes, to the oesophagus, to the
salivary glands, to the buccal organ, and to the arms. The branches
that goto the buccal organ pass through the nervous collar ; and that
which supplies the arms goes so far along with them, and then pene-
trating through the pedal ganglion, passes to its outer surface, and so
advances to its destination, giving off, as it goes, branches to the mus-
cular wall of the buccal channel.

The arterial branches supplying the fins in the Loliginidce, exhibit
enlargements similar to those of the aortic branches, and the function
in both cases is probably the same, though it is not very clear what
it is. As they are muscular, however, they are probably for the
purpose of regulating the flow of the blood to the respective parts,
retarding it or pressing it onward, as occasion may require.

The most interesting point that I have observed in the nervous
system is, that the surface of the brain of Octopus vulgaris displays
distinct inequalities, having a considerable resemblance to the rudi-
mentary cerebral convolutions of some of the lower Vertebrata. I
have also, for the second time, observed that the brachial nerves
originate in two centres, or rather, that in those species which have
the pedal ganglions divided into two portions, these nerves have
double roots which can readily be separated for a considerable dis-
tance from their origin.

It may also be stated, that, on a due analysis of the parts, the
connnissures and the ganglions, composing the Cephalopodous brain,
can be clearly determined, and their homological relations with those
of the lower mollusks ascertained. This being so, the difficulties
with regard to the general homologies of these highly organised
mollusks do in a great measure disappear. And it is satisfactory to
know, that the results, thus obtained, agree with those derived from
embryological and other data, as determined by Prof. Huxley.

In concluding these few somewhat hasty and imperfect remarks,
on the structure and physiology of the Dibranchiate Cephalopoda,
it will be well to take a glance at the results at which we have
arrived, though in some respects they cannot be considered final.

The results, then, are as follows : —

First. — That the so-called abdominal or visceral chamber, in the
Dibranchiate Cephalopoda, is a veritable venous sinus, formed by the
expansion of venous trunks, and that it is provided with proper walls.

484 ORIGINAL ARTICLES.

Second. — That, apparently, capillary vessels exist, uniting the
arterial and venous branchlets ; and that the blood system is com-
posed of vessels and sinuses with proper walls, therefore constituting
a closed system.

Third. — That the so-called water system, for the ingress of water
from the exterior, does not exist ; but that the chambers to which this
function has been attributed compose a diffused kidney — the glandular
appendages in the renal chamber being for the purpose of eliminating the
peculiarly urinary matters, while the fluids pass off through the agency
of the capillaries of the various organs that lie in the several chambers.

Fourth. — That a rudimentary absorbent system exists in these
animals, the intestinal veins assuming, in addition to their own, the
function of lacteals, and the so-called fleshy appendages of the branchial
hearts acting, probably, in the capacity of a general lymphatic system.

Fifth. — That there is no pericardium properly so called.

Sixth. — That the muscular fibre of the systemic heart is of the
striated variety, as is also apparently that of the branchial hearts.

Seventh.— -That the cephalic arteries, and those supplying the
fins, are provided with bulbous, muscular enlargements, probably for
the purpose of regulating the flow of the blood.

Eighth. — That the surface of the brain of Octopus vulgaris exhibits
inequalities resembling rudimentary convolutions, and that the pedal
nerves arise by double roots ; both conditions approximating to the
higher standard of the Vertebrata.

Ninth. — That the results of analysis of the nervous system corro-
borate the deductions derived from embryology as to the homological
import of the parts.

XLIX. — On Correlations oe Growth, with a Special Example
from the Anatomy oe a Porpoise, by Gr. Eolleston, M.D.,
E.L.S., Linacre Professor of Physiology in the University of
Oxford.

Philosophers of other countries have often taken occasion to remark,
and in no complimentary terms, upon the utilitarian tendency con-
stantly displayed by the English mind. Our everlasting seeking
after hidden purposes, our infantine inquisitiveness after final causes
in biological as well as other investigations, has frequently called
forth contemptuous comments from foreigners, who happened to be
acquainted with Bacon's famous comparison of final causes to vestal
virgins. But in these latter days it has come to be acknowledged,
even in England, that there are many structures in normal organisms
for the existence of which no teleological explanation will suffice ;
and it is right to say that in no other country, and in no other time
than ours, have theories for the explanation of such phenomena been
more clearly enunciated. Our natural hankering after hypothesis,

ROLLESTOX ON COBBELATIOWS OF QBOWTE |s."»

our constitutional craving after rationales, has called into use, if not
into being, the several theories of adherence to type, of complemen-
tal nutrition, of genealogical, yet modified, transmission, and of cor-
relation of growth.

The first of these theories has won with us not a little popularity;
its antique dress, striking the eye, diverted the attention from tie
utter incongruity which exists between Platonic mysticism and
modern science ; and, appealing to our reverence for the dreams of

our youth, it has lived longer, and made more converts than unas-
sisted by the associations of the Academy it ever could have done.
Even now it is fairly in the way of developing out of the larva stage
of an Idolon Theatri into an Idolon Fori, a more active, elusive, albeit
fragile, Imago. But a few years back, the joint empire of final and
formal causes, of confederated ideological and morphological consi-
derations, seemed firmly established in a country delighting in com-
promise ; the legitimacy of the one, and the prescriptive right of the
other, placed them, when united, in an apparently unassailable posi-
tion. The appearance of the theory of complemental nutrition in a
deservedly well-known work* caused men to accept of a triumvirate
of ruling causes. Material causes counted for something as well as
final and formal ; "Wolff's theory could suffice not only for the ration-
alization of many phenomena which Paley and Oken did explain, but
also for the elucidation of some with which their philosophies were
incompetent to deal. Mr. Paget's exemplifications of the law of
complemental nutrition seem drawn exclusively from a class of cases
of what I would call " heterogeneous growth." The evolution of the
one structure has rendered possible the evolution of the other, by
setting free some residual product which Nature in her economy has
worked up into such secondary structure. The perfecting of the
plumage contemporaneously writh the perfecting of the sexual func-
tions in the pairing bird is one, and may serve as a type of all, of the
instances given by Mr. Paget. There is no equality in rank between
the two structures, which stand to each other in this relation of
complemental nutrition ; the one is supported by what the other finds
useless, superfluous, or even hurtful; after the production of the one
the organism aims and labours, the other is but a " nebenprodukt ;"
they are heterogeneous in the same sense as the food of the hound
and the food of his master, and often in a yet truer sense still.

The instances of Correlated Growths to which I am about to
refer, and which from the dissection I shall detail, I hope to eluci-
date, differ from those classed under the head of Complemental
Nutrition, in that both growths draw with equal right, and toanequal
extent, upon the same store of nutriment. To the same stock of
alimentary matters they stand in the same relation ; they share and
share alike either as joint consumers or joint elaboratore of it. If
we may coin a word from but second-hand Greek, and borrow one-half

* Paget Lectures on Surgical Pathology, Vol. !, Lecture ii.

486 OKIGINAL AETICLES.

of our composite from our Anglicised word " tautologous," we would
call these growths " tautogeneous." As just hinted, they admit of a
two-fold rationale. The blood either needs, as in the case I shall
proceed to detail, an excess of some material, or it possesses some
material in excess over its requirements ; in either case " tautoge-
neous" growths spring up, in the one case to elaborate, in the other
to consume, that excess of material. The history of pathological
tumours is but an illustration of the latter of these divisions.
The severity of our struggle for existence has called into being so
rigid a law of parsimony, as to render it difficult to give illustrations
of this class of tautogeneous growths from physiological nutrition.
But though difficult, it is not impossible. I proceed to illustrate
the former of these two divisions by an account of certain structures
observed by me in a recent dissection of a young porpoise.

The animal was a young Phoccena communis, but it had attained
at least fourth-fifths of its full size, weighing as it did 60 lbs. and
being 47i inches in length.

On either side the aorta, just where it became free from the dia-
phragm, on passing into the abdomen, two elongated bodies were to
be seen, lying in close contact with the posterior part of its calibre for
a length of as much as three inches. Their width was about the fourth
of an inch, and this width was maintained for their entire length.
Their external surface was smooth, only a little lobulated at their
upper end and internal margin. They possessed a readily detachable
fibro-cellular capsule. They were reddish in colour, firm to the touch,
on section at first homogeneous, but subsequently showing to careful
inspection numerous orifices of cut vessels, though very little fibrous
stroma. Their upper ends lay behind, and in contact with the poste-
rior half of each supra-renal capsule. This relation will show that
the structures in question could not have been abnormally persistent
Wolffian bodies, which indeed further particulars will yet further
prove.

These structures, when examined by the microscope, were seen to
be all but wholly made up of such cells as we get from the Malpighian
bodies in the spleen, or indeed from the cortical part of a lymphatic
gland, namely, circular nucleated cells with granular contents, of a
size somewhat less than that of a red blood corpuscle.

Functionally, these structures may be regarded as identical with
lymphatic glands; morphologically, I consider them different; on
account, first, of their symmetrically elongated tongue-like shape, all
but entirely smooth and unlobulated, and secondly, on account of
their encapsulation in an external coat of fibro-cellular tissue, and
their want of such supporting elements within their parenchyma.*

* Though my dissection enables ms to confirm the views put forth by Mr. Turner,
it compels me to dissent from those anatomists who say there is nothing in the Ceta-
cean economy to represent either the Vena Azygos or the Cowper's Glands of Human
Anatomy.

flOLLESTON <>\ OOH^ELATIOlTfi OF OEOWTH. 1^7

Inhere can nt nil etente be no doubl Ihal they were developed
i'vivw the genera] fbririative mass of blafctema, whicli Burrounds the

aorta m the fetus, as described by Profe ■ ( toodsir;* and thai there'

fore the} were morphologically as well as physiologically bo bed
with the bhymmt This gland, as well aid the thyroid, was largely
developed in (Ins specimen, and the arrangement Of the two eiancra
coincided very exactly with the description given of them by my
friend Mr. Turner.^

The lymphatic glands generally thrOughoirl the body were largely
developed; so largely, In met, at either jaw angle, as to simulate tho
appearance of a large submaxillary gland.

The spleen waS, as lias been so often described, curiously multifid.

All oi' these ductless, all of these lymphatic, glands were richly
supplied with blood vessels; all, alike and jointly, laboured at tho
elaboration of the constituent elements of the vast mass of this
cetacean's blood. They enabled it thus to support a high standard
of temperature in an excellent conducting medium, and they sup-
plied all the calls for rich and refined aliment which a brain equalling
in this case one-sixtieth of the weight of the entire body, made
upon the nutritive fluids. They may be taken as illustrations of
" tautogeneous growths'1 of the first of our two classes.

Many of Mr. Paget's instances of complemcntal nutrition, 3I>.
Darwin would explain as the results§ of hereditary transmission,
with modification, and there can be little doubt that of the two
hypotheses the latter will, to many minds, seem to suit the better
with such instances as the four rudiments of nails on the fun of
the Manatee, or the equally rudimentary teeth in the Ruminant's
intermaxillaries, or of the representatives of the Polian vesicles in
the Arenicola.

But many of Mr. Paget's instances cannot be brought under
this head, and constituted as our minds are, we cannot but read them
as he has done.

Mr. Darwin, on the other hand, himself || admits that there are
many instances of correlated growths of which our reason can gi\e
no rationale, either as subserving ends, or as confirming to type, or
as speaking of parentage, or as working up into structure what wonld
else be waste and excretory; for which in other words it can assign
neither final nor formal, nor material cause. I would instance in
addition to those he brings forward, the correlations of growth wit-
nessed in Morbus Canaileus betwixt a malformation bf the heart and

* Phil. Trans. 184G, p. 038.

f In the common Shrew, however, two bodies are to W (bond, floating loosely in
the abdominal cavity, but anchored each by a process of mesentery which is attached
just where these bodies in fche Porpoise lie fixed; ami that tiny are connected with
the lymphatic or rather with the lacteal Bystem, an examination of a Shrew, which
has died whilst digesting, will leave no doubt.

% Transaet. Royal Soc. Edinburgh, Vol. XXII. Part ii.

§ Origin of Species, p. 453-404, 1st edit. pp. 486-48?, 3rd edit.

11 Origin of Species, pp. 145, 197, 1st edit.; pp. 162, 217, 3rd edit.

TOL. I. — N. II. K. 3 R

488 OBIGINAL ARTICLES.

a clubbed adunque state of the finger nails, and in Morbus Addisoni
betwixt disorganized supra-renal capsules and pigmentary skin dis-
colouration. *" Unable to rationalize, we class such phenomena as these
under the wide head of " Correlations of Growth." The very vague-
ness of the phrase prevents us from even momentarily deluding our-
selves with the idea that it amounts to an explanation, and to more
therefore than an expression, of facts. It cannot be accused of striv-
ing to conceal the flimsiness of its thought by a magnificent display
of archaic words, as certain exchequers would fain conceal their
bankruptcy from the world by a copious issue of paper money. Herein
lies its great merit.

On a future occasion I shall consider the nature of the Hybernat-
ing glands, if so they may be called, of certain hybernating and non-
hybernating Insectivora and Chiroptera, and the possibility of classing
them as growths tautogeneous with the highly developed mesenteric
and cervical lymphatic glands found in many of those creatures.

And, before concluding, I would mention yet another class of
structures, the existence of which admits of being rationalized upon
yet another principle. These structures, fixed and settled in the
adult organism, speak of a time when the sex was as yet unfixed and
unsettled in the developing embryo, and accessory organs of either
kind were, if so we may say, prepared so as to be in readiness to
meet either event. The mammary glands, the "Weberian organ, and
the cysts of Morgagni of the adult male, the round ligament and the
canals of Nuck and of Grartner of the adult female economy, may
have the history of their existence thus read.

As more and more vera causes assert their existence and vindicate
their rights, the ancient realm of Archetypal Ideas wdll suffer more
and more serious curtailment* But, like other foiling empires, it too
will find its advocates to speak of it as being an " essentially conser-
vative powTer ;" though after short campaigns it has, once and again
had to resign some of the fairest provinces in the world of thought,
its existence will still be said to be necessary for the " preservation
of the due balance of power" amongst rival biological principles.

Let us hope that in the interludes of Ehetoric the Logic of Tacts
may find a moment to make itself heard. It will teach men mun-
dum quasrere non in onicrocosmo suo sed in mundo major e, to hold of
Nature that her ways are not as our ways, nor her thoughts as our
thouo-hts. The notion of type may help man's weakness, but it by
no means therefore follows that it regulates Nature's operations ; it
may enable us to colligate phenomena, but it may no more for that
be the cause of their evolution than the mule's panniers which carry
home the grapes are, by virtue of this their function, the cause of the
growth of the vine.

* Even in Mr. Herbert Spencer's " First Principles," we find at page 22, the
following sentence. " In Biology we are beginning to progress through a fusion of
the Doctrine of Types with the doctrine of adaptations," and Mr. Darwin, in the last
page bat one to which we have referred in his writings, speaks of " Homology
coming into play" as a really efficient physical agent.

I 19

L.— Tin: ]C.ioKki:\uo!>i>iNi.s : kdknt Geologico - Abch <
qicxl Beseabc^es i-v i)i:.NM.vi;iv. Bv John Lubbock.

r. u.s. ' '

1)i:nmai:iv occupiesa largerspace in the history, than in the map, of
Europe. Dhe nation is greater than the country,; and eyeD if with the
growth of physical pipwer in surrounding populations, she has lost
somewhat of her influence in political councils, still the Danes «>i" to-
day are no unworthy representatives of their ancestors, Many a la
nation might envy them the position they hold in .Science and in Art,
and few have contributed more to the progress of human knowledge.
Copenhagen, indeed, may well be proud botli of her Museums and of
her Professors: and without attempting to compare together things
which are essentially incomparable, we may, perhaps, especially
point to the celebrated Museum of Northern Antiquities, as b«
mosl characteristic and unique.

For the formation of such a collection Denmark offers unrivalled
opportunities. The whole country appears to have been, at one time,
thickly studded with tumuli : where the land has not been brought
into cultivation, several of them are often in sight at once, and even
in the more fertile and thickly populated parts, the plough is often
diverted from its course by one of these ancient burial places. For-
tunately, the stones of which they are constructed are so large and
so hard, that their destruction and removal is a laborious and expen-
sive undertaking. As, however, land grows more valuable, or per-
haps when the stones themselves become available for building or
other purposes, no conservative tradition, or feeling of reverence for
the dead, protects them from desecration: and it is estimated that
not a week passes without witnessing the destruction of one or more
tumuli, and the loss of some, perhaps irrecoverable, link in the history
of Our race.

Every barrow indeed, is in itself a small museum of Northern
Antiquities, and the whole country even may be considered as a
Museum on a great scale. The peat bogs, which occupy so large an
area, may almost be said to swarm with antiquities, and Professor
Steenstrup estimates that every column of three feet square contains
some specimen of ancient workmanship. All these advantages and
opportunities, however, might have been thrown aw ay, bu1 for the
genius and perseverance of Professor Thorn en, who may fairh be
said to have created the Museum over which he bo worthily presides.

After careful study, the archaeologists of Northern Europe have
divided the history of their country into four great periods, and their
Collection into as many series. These four ages are known as the
Stone, the Bronze, the Iron, and the Christian periods. Of the last
I need here say nothing: nor docs the Iron age immediately concern

though it may be well to observe that it certainly commenced
before the time of Christ and lasted until the introduction of Chris-

490 OKKHNAL ARTICLES.

tianity into Denmark. The men of this period had long heads, and
were, as well as the domestic animals, apparently more powerful than
those of the preceding epoch. "With the Bronze age we get beyond
the reach of history and even of tradition. At first it appears re-
markable that bronze should have been discovered before iron : but
copper itself is found native, its ores are strongly coloured, and have
a metallic appearance, while those of tin are black, very heavy, and
easily smelted. On the other hand, iron ore, though very common, is
not peculiar either in colour or in weight, and its reduction requires
a very high temperature.

Before arriving, however, at a knowledge of bronze, it is
evident that mankind must have passed through an age of cop-
per, and the absence in Northern Europe of any evidence of such
a fact (though a very few hatchets of copper have been found)
is one among several reasons for regarding the acquisition of
bronze, not as a discovery made by the men of the Stone period, but
rather as introduced into Northern Europe by a new race. In fact,
while mankind, during the earlier part, if not the whole, of the
Stone period, appear (in Denmark, at least) to have been exclu-
sively hunters and fishermen, with the Bronze age we find evidences
of a pastoral and agricultural life, in the presence of domestic oxen,
pigs, and sheep. It is probable that the men of the Stone period
were conquered and partly replaced, by a more civilized race
coining from the East. It is not only the introduction of bronze
and of domestic animals which points to such a conclusion. The
new people burned their dead and collected the bones in funeral
urns. While, therefore, we have many skulls belonging to the Stone
age, there is scarcely one, well authenticated, as appertaining to the
Bronze : and though this custom of burning the dead deprives us of
the assistance of osteology, it is in itself some indication of Eastern
origin. The small size of the knife handles belonging to this period
shows that, like the Hindoos of the present day, the men had small
hands ;* and, indeed, they appear to have been decidedly inferior to
the Iron race which succeeded them.

On the other hand it must be confessed that the antiquities
of Norway and Sweden, of Switzerland and of Ireland, indicate a
different progress of civilization in these countries. Thus domestic
animals were already known in Switzerland during the Stone age ;
in Northern Scandinavia bronze appears to have been much rarer
and iron to have been discovered earlier, than in Denmark ; while in
Ireland the custom of burning the dead coexisted, according to "Wilde,
(though upon this point the evidence is not quite satisfactory), with
the practice of interment and belonged to various periods, although
in Denmark it appears to be confined to the Bronze and perhaps
the commencement of the Iron age. These differences however will

* Mr. Wilde however suggests that these swords may have heen used rather as
daggers, and have been held by only three fingers. (Catalogue of Antiquities, p. 455.)

LUBBOCK ON TIIK k.lo i, k i \ \w , : , i m -. 491

Appear less surprising when we consider that, in more modern timet,
coins were struck in tin* South of England before the commence-
ment of our era, while in Ireland none were made before the tenth
century, so that London has had a coinage for move than fcwic
kmg as Dublin. For the present however 1 confine myself to Den-
mark, reserving the consideration of other countries for a future
opportunity.

Two or three battle fields belonging to the Bronze period have
been found, and have supplied a great number of interesting objects.
It is curious, that besides dice of the common shape, some have been
discovered which are elongated and cylindrical, a peculiar farm which
is slid however used in some parts ol* India. Many of the spears had
one or more nails driven into them, in a manner apparently use-
less, but Professor Thomsen observed the same thing in some
Bpears from India, and ascertained that, in these, a nail was inserted
lor every enemy killed. Metal was, however, rare and precious, and
therefore only used in instruments which could not easily be made
from Hint. The beautiful flint knives of the Stone period must
have been extremely difficult to make. "VVe cannot imitate them
now, and even in those days, when they had such wonderful skill
in workiug flint, a flint knife must have been made with great diffi-
culty. Axes, on the contrary, were easily formed, and therefore stone
was used for them long after the introduction of bronze, as is
shown by the fact that while in the Museum at Copenhagen thero
are about 300 bronze swords, there are not more than 20 bronze
axes. The arrow heads also were made of flint.

A confusion is sometimes made between the bronze of the true
Bronze age, and that which is found together with iron. The former,
however, is composed of about 9 parts of copper to 1 of tin, while in
the bronze, or rather brass, of the Iron period, the tin is generally
replaced by zinc, and the composition thus obtained is n cd only for
ornaments ; and though sometimes, as for instance in the umbos of
the shields, it may form part of a weapon, it is never the cutting or
striking edge, which is always formed of iron.

The number of objects belonging to the Bronze age, which havo
been found in Denmark is very remarkable, and together with the
great differences apparent in the workmanship, indicate that the
period was of great duration. The same appears to have been the
case in Ireland, as in the great museum of the Eoyal Irish Academy
there are six hundred and eighty-six of these weapons, and yet no two
of them* were cast in the same mould.

Some of them are merely repetitions, in bronze, of the older
stone weapons, as may very well be seen, for instance, in the
British Museum; but, at what was perhaps a later period; the
art had wonderfully improved, and the bronze instruments are more
varied in form and more ski lfully made. That they were cast, and

Wilde's Catalogue, p. 393.

402 ORIGINAL ARTICLES.

were of Danish manufacture is proved by the discovery of moulds,
and in some cases of the " tags " formed in the hole through which
the metal was poured.

With the Stone age we arrive at a time when the use of metal
was altogether unknown in Denmark. The inhabitants supported
themselves by hunting and fishing, and had no domestic animals,
except the dog, nor so far as we are aware, any knowledge of agri-
culture.

Reduced thus to implements of stone, and fortunate in being able
to obtain excellent flint, they attained to a rare skill in this art, and
some of their flint spears and knives are wonderfully well made.
The common form of flint axe, or celt, is represented in PL VII. fig. 1.
These weapons though found elsewhere, are rare, except in Denmark,
where they occur in the barrows of the Stone period. A few have
been met with in England, principally in rivers, but our specimens
seem to be generally narrower, with sloping sides, and arched above
and below, while the Danish forms are flatter and with perpendicular
sides. They were made by a succession of blows, and then the angles
were ground down on sandstone blocks, several of which have been
discovered. In this respect they differ from the celts found in the
gravel beds at Amiens and Abbeville, which are always left angular.
Smaller hatchets of stone are common in and to all countries. Some
of the other objects belonging to this first great phase in the civili-
sation of Scandinavia are represented in PL VII. It might at first
be doubted whether the triangular flint flake {fig. 7) was neces-
sarily artificial. Similar flakes, however, either of flint or obsidian,
have been and are still, used by savages in various parts of the world.
They were made by taking an oblong stone and continually splitting
off the projecting edges. Many obsidian flakes and one of the pieces
from which they were struck may be seen in the British Museum,
and I have represented in PL VII. fig. 6, a similar piece of flint from
Denmark. The tombs of this period are chambers formed by enor-
mous blocks of stone, so large that it is difficult to imagine how they
can have been brought into position. The bodies were placed in a
sitting posture, with their backs resting against the stones, and their
knees brought up under their chins. When the tomb was intended
only for one or two bodies it was small and the height was determined
by the size of the stones forming the sides. Sometimes, however, a
number were buried together, the tomb having, perhaps, served as a last
resting place for a whole family. When this was the case the walls
were formed by two rows of stones, and the space enclosed was much
larger. In one that we visited the chamber was about 25 feet long
by 10 broad, and there was a passage leading from the side to the ex-
terior. The tomb was finally covered over by great slabs, and earth
was heaped upon it, so as to form a mound, and a row of stones was
placed round the edge. They are, therefore, quite different from the
Barrows of the Bronze period which " have no circles of massive
" stones, no stone chambers, in general no large stones on the bottom,

LUBBOCK OX T1IK IC.Iuk'Ki:NMumn\i;S.

f: willi the exception of stone cists placed togeiher, which, however,

" arc easily to be distinguished from the stone chambers ; thej i
" sist, as a general rule, of mere earth, with limps of small si
" and always preseni themselves to the eye as mounds of earth,
" which, in a few rare mstances are surrounded tif a sinal] circle of
" stonefr, and contain relies of bodies which have been burned and
u placed in vessels of clay with objects of metal."*

Jt would appear from the remains found near the lake habitations
of Switzerland, that, though, during the {Stone period, neither
goat, the sheep, nor the domestic ox can be proved to have existed in
Denmark, they were already present in Southern Europe, but, even
if the lake-habitations do not, as seems probable, belong to a | eriod
subsequent to that of the " Kjokkenmoddings," it is easy to 1>
that in many respects the inhabitants of these more genial countries
may have been more civilized than their Northern contemporaries.

In addition, however, to the objects collected from the tumuli and
the peat bogs, and to those Which have been found from time to
time scattered at random in the soil, the Museum of Northern Anti-
quities contains an immense collection of specimens from some very
interesting shell deposits, which are known in Denmark under the
name of " Kjokkenmoddings," and which were long supposed to be
raised beaches, like those which are found at so many points along
our own shores. True raised beaches, however, necessarily contain a
variety of species ; the individuals are of all ages, and they are, of
course, mixed with a considerable quantity of sand and gravel. It
was observed, however, in the first instance, I believe by Professor
Steenstrup, that in these supposed raised beaches, the shells belonged
entirely to full grown, or nearly full grown, individuals: that they
consisted of four species which do not live together, nor require the
same conditions, and would not therefore be found together alone
in a natural deposit : and thirdly, that the stratum contains scarcely
any gravel, but consists almost entirely of shells.

The discovery of rude flint implements, and of bones still bearing
the marks of knives, confirmed the supposition that these beds were
not natural formations, and it subsequently became evident that they
were, in fact, the sites of ancient villages, the primitive population
having lived on the shore and fed principally on shell-fish, but partly
also on the proceeds of the chase. The shells and bones not avail-
able for food gradually accumulated round the tents, until they
formed deposits generally, from 3 to 5" feet, but sometimes as much
as 10 feet in thickness, and in some cases more than 300 yards in
length, with a breadth of from 150 to 200 feet. The name Kjokkcn-
modding is derived from Kjokken, kitchen, and modding (corres-
ponding to our local word midding) a refuse heap, and it became, of
course, evident that a careful examination of these accumulations
would throw much light on the manners and civilization of the then
population.

* Worsaae'a Primeval Antiquities, p. fJ3.

401 ORIGINAL ARTICLES.

Under these circumstances a committee was formed, consisting
of Professor Steer) strap, the celebrated author of the treatise " On
the Alternation of Grenerations," Professor Forchhammer, the father
of Danish Geology, and Professor Worsaae, the great Archaeologist :
a happy combination, and one which promised the best results to
Biology, Greology, and Archaeology.

Much was naturally expected from the labours of such a trium-
virate, but the most sanguine hopes have been fulfilled. Already
several of the deposits have been carefully examined, and many thou-
sand specimens have been collected, ticketed, and deposited in the
Museum at Copenhagen. Both in themselves and in their rela-
tions to the discoveries made by M. Boucher de Perthes in the Valley
of the Somme, these researches are of the greatest interest, and the
results have been embodied in six Reports presented to the Academy
of Sciences at Copenhagen.*

These reports, however, being in Danish have not received the at-
tention they deserve, but M. Morlotf has published a very excellent
abstract of them, to which I would refer all those who take an
interest in the subject, and from which I have extracted many of
the following details. Having had the advantage of visiting the pits
at Amiens and Abbeville with Mr. Busk, Capt. Gralton, and Mr.
Prestwich, and of inspecting the admirable collection belonging to M.
Boucher de Perthes, I was naturally very desirous of having an oppor-
tunity of comparing the flint instruments found in Prance with those
which occur in Denmark, and I was so fortunate as to induce Mr.
Busk to go with me to Copenhagen, he being specially anxious to
study the collection of ancient crania, while my attention was more
particularly directed to the contents of the Kjokkenmoddings.
During the whole of our visit Prof. Worsaae was absent from the
capital, and Prof. Porchhammer was also away for a great part of the
time ; Professors Thomsen and Steenstrup however were most oblig-
ing, and the latter at much personal inconvenience made an excursion
into the country to show us the Kjokkenmodding, at Havelse, on
the Isefjord, which is one of the most characteristic specimens of
these ancient dust-heaps. We had already visited one at Bilidt,
close to Predericksund, but this is one of the places at which it would
seem that the inhabitants cooked their dinners actually on the shore
itself, so that the shells and bones are much mixed up with sand and
gravel. At Havelse, on the contrary, the settlement was rather
higher up, and the shells and bones are therefore unmixed with any
extraneous substances. We started from Copenhagen soon after six,
going to Boeskilde by rail, and then took the steamer down the Ise-
fjord to Predericksund, from which we drove to Havelse. At this
place the Kjokkenmodding is of small extent, and appears to have

* Untersogelser i geologisk-antiquarisk Retiring af G. Forchhammer, J, Steen-
strup, og J. Worsaae.

f Etudes Geologico-Archeologiques en Danemark et en Suisse. Mem. de la
Societe Vaudoise, T.vi. 1860.

LUBBOCK ON THE EJOEKENlfODBIKl 190

surrounded a single tent, being in the form of an irregular ping, en-
closing a space on which the tenl or tents probably Btood, and
which is now occupied by a mill. In other cases, where the deposit
is of greater extent, the surface is undulating, the greater thics
of the shelly stratum in some places apparent^ indicating the ar-
rangement of the dwellings. These two settlements wereby no meani
the only ones on the Isefjord; in the neighbourhood oiBoeskilde,
Kjokkenmoddinss occur near Qjerdrnp, at Kattinge, and Cattinge
Vaerk, near Trallcrup, at Gjershoi, and opposite the island of llylde-
holme ; besides several farther north, Others have been found on
the islands of Fyen, of Moen, and of Samsoe, and in Jutland along
Liimfjord, Mariagerfjord, Randersfjord, Kolindsund, and Horsens-
fjord. The southern parts of Denmark have not yet been carefully
examined. Generally it is evident that deposits of this nature were
scattered here and there over the whole coast, and that they were
never formed inland. The whole country would appear to have been
more intersected by fjords during the Stone period even than it is
now. Under these circumstances it is evident that a nation which
subsisted principally on marine shellfish would never form any large
inland settlements. In some instances indeed Kjokkenmoddings
have been found as much as eight miles from the present coast, but
in these cases there is good reason for supposing that the land has
encroached on the sea. On the other hand, in those parts where
Kjokkenmoddings do not occur, their absence is no doubt occa-
sioned by the waves having to a certain extent eaten away the
shore, an explanation which accounts for their being so much more
frequent on the shores of the inland fjords than on the coast itself,
and also deprives us of all hope of finding any similar remains on
our eastern and south-eastern shores, though an examination of the
western Coast would be very desirable. The fact that the majority
of these deposits are found at a height of only a few feet above the
sea appears to prove that there has been no considerable subsidence
of the land since their formation, while on the other hand it clearly
proves that there can have been no elevation. In certain cases, how-
ever, where the shore is elevated, they have been found at a consi-
derable height. It might indeed be supposed that where, as at Bilidt,
the materials of the Kjokkcnmodding were rudely intcrst ratified
with sand and gravel, the land must have sunk, but if for any length
of time such a deposit was subjected to the action of the waves, all
traces of it would be obliterated, and it is therefore probable that an
explanation is rather to be found in theYact that the action of wares
and storms was greater then than now. At present the tides only
affect the Kattegat to the extent of about a foot and a half, and thi
configuration of the land protects it very much from the action of
the winds. On the other hand, on the V its of Jutland the

rides rise about nine feet, and the winds have been known to pro-
duce differences of level amounting to 2D feet, and as we know that
Jutland was anciently an archipelago, and that the Baltic was more.

VOL. I.— N. H. B.

496 ORIGINAL ARTICLES.

open to the German Ocean than it is now, we can easily understand
that the fluctuations of level may have been greater, and we can
thus explain how the waves may have risen over the Rjokkenmod-
ding at Bilidt (which is after all not much more than 10 feet above
the water), without resorting to the hypothesis of a subsidence and
subsequent elevation of the coast.

In the Lake-habitations of the Stone age in Switzerland, grains
of wheat and barley and even pieces of bread, or rather biscuit, have
been found.* It does not however appear that the men of the Kjok-
kenmbddings had any knowledge of agriculture, no traces of grain of
any sort having been hitherto discovered. The only vegetable remains
found in them have been burnt pieces of wood and some charred sub-
stance referred by M. Forchhammer to the Zoster a marina, a sea
plant which was perhaps used in the production of salt.

The four species of shells which constitute the greater portion of
these deposits are in the order of their abundance —
The oyster, Ostrea edulis, L.
The cockle, Cardium edule, L.
The mussel, Mytilus edulis, L. and
The periwinkle, Littorina littorea, L.
all four of which are still used as food for man. Four other species
occur more rarely, namely, —

Nassa reticulata, L.
Buccinwm undatum, L. (the whelk)
Venus pullastra, Mont, and
Helix nemoralis (the snail).
It is remarkable that the specimens of these species are very well
developed, and decidedly larger than any now found in the neigh-
bourhood. This is especially the case with the Cardium edule and
Littorina littorea, while the oyster has entirely disappeared, and even
in the Cattegat itself occurs only in a few places, a result which may
perhaps be partly accounted for by the quantities caught. Some
oysters were, however, still living in thelsefjord at the beginning of
the century, and their disappearance cannot be altogether ascribed
to the fishermen, as great numbers of dead shells are still present ;
but in this case it is attributed to the abundance of starfishes, which
are very destructive to oysters. On the whole,, however, their dis-
appearance, especially when taken in connexion with the dwarf size
of the other species, is evidently attributable in a great measure to
the smaller proportion of salt in the water.

Of Crustacea only a few fragments of crabs have hitherto been
found. Fish bones, on the contrary, are frequent, the commonest
being —

Clupea Jiarenr/us, L. (the herring)
Gadus callarias, L. (the dorse)
Pleuronectes limanda, L. (the dab) and
Murena anguilla, L. (the eel).

* Troyon, Habitations Lacustres, pp. 43 and 427.

LUBBOCK ON THE KJOKKENMoDDIXGS. 497

The remains of birds are highly interesting and instructive. The
domestic fowl (Gallus domesticas) is "conspicuous by its absence."
It is less surprising that the two domestic swallows of Denmark,
(Hirundo rustica and H. urbica), the sparrow, and the stork are also
missing. On the other hand, fine specimens of the capercailzie
(Tetrao urogallus) which feeds principally on the buds of the pine,
shows that, as we knew already from the remains found in the peat,
the country was at one time covered with pine forests. Aquatic
birds, however, are the most frequent, especially several species of
ducks and geese. The wild swan {Anas cygnus, L.), which only
visits Denmark in winter, is also found ; but perhaps, the most in-
teresting of the birds whose remains have been identified is the Great
Auk (Alca impennis, L.), a species which is now almost extinct.

During our short visit to Havelse we found perhaps a hundred
fragments of bone belonging principally to the following animals : —

The stag (Cervus elaplius, L.)

The roedeer {Cervus capreolus, L.)

The wild boar (Sits scrofa, L.)

The wild bull (Bos urus or primigenius) and

The seal (Phocagryppus, Fabr.)
These are the commonest species, but the following also occur: —

The beaver (Castor Jiber, L.)

The wolf (Cams lupis, L.)

The fox (Canis vulpes, L.)

The dog (Canis familiar is, L.)

The lynx (Felis lynx, L.)

The wild cat (Felis cdttis, L.)

The marten (Mustela martes, L.)

The otter (Lutra vulgaris, Erxl.)

The hedgehog (Erinaceus europaus, L,)

The water rat (Hypudceus amphibius, L.)
The Lithuanian auroch (Bison europcBus) has been found, though
rarely, in the peat bogs, but not yet in the Kjokkenmoddings. The
musk ox (Bubalus nwschatus) and the domestic ox (Bos taurus),
as well as the elk, the reindeer, the hare, the sheep, and the domestic
hog, are all absent. Remains of the two former will probably be ere
long discovered. It may perhaps be inferred that the hares were
spared in deference to the same superstition which preserved them
from the ancient Britons, and which in Lapland and some other
countries survives even to the present day.*

Professor Steenstrup does not believe that the domestic hog of
ancient Europe was directly derived from the wild boar, but rather
that it was introduced from the East, and the skulls which he showed
us in support of this belief certainly exhibited very great differences
between the two races. It is extremely unlikely that an animal so
powerful and so intractable as the Urus appears to have been, can

* It is a curious fact that as Professor Steenstrup informs me, the hones from
the Kjokkenmoddings of Jutland indicate as a general rule larger and more powerful
animals than those of the Islands.

4j98 original articles.

have been domesticated by these savages, and the condition of the
bones themselves confirms the idea that they belonged to wild animals.
The sheep and the reindeer being entirely absent, and the domestic
cat not having been known in Europe until about the ninth century,
the dog appears to have been the only domestic animal of the period ;
and though it may fairly be asked whether the bones may not have
belonged to a race of wild dogs, the question admits of a satisfactory
answer.

Among the remains of birds, the long bones which form about
one-fifth of the skeleton are, in the Kjokkenmoddings, about twenty
times as numerous as the others, and are almost always imperfecta
the shaft only remaining. In the same manner it would be impos-
sible to reconstruct a perfect skeleton of the quadrupeds, certain
bones and parts of bones being always absent. In the case of the ox,
for instance, the missing parts are the heads of the long bones
(though while the shaft only of the femur is found, in the humerus
one end is generally perfect), the back bone except the two first
vertebra?, the spinous processes, and generally the ribs, and the bones
of the skull except the lower jaw and the portion round the eyes.
It occurred to M. Steenstrup that these curious facts might, per-
haps, be referred to the dogs; and, on trying the experiment, he
ascertained that the bones which are absent from the Kjokken-
moddings are precisely those which the dogs eat, and those which
are present are the parts which are too hard and solid to contain
much nourishment. M. Steenstrup called my attention to a dia-
gram of a bird's skeleton, tinted in such a manner as to show at a
glance which of the bones occur in the Kjokkenmoddings, and pointed
out to me that it coincided exactly with one given by M. Serres
to illustrate those portions of the skeleton which were first formed.

Although a glance at, for instance, a femur, and a comparison of
the open cancellated tissue of the two ends with the solid, close,
texture of the shaft, at once justifies and accounts for the selection
made by the dogs, it is interesting thus to ascertain that their predi-
lections were the same in primaeval times as at present. Moreover,
we may in this manner explain the prevalence of some bones in fossil
strata, I have already mentioned that of the skull, the hard parts
round the eye and the lower jaw are the only parts left ; now, the
preponderance of lower jaws in a fossil state is well known.

In the " Proceedings of the Greological Society for 1857," p. 277,
Dr. Falconer, after describing some of the fossils found by Mr.
Beccles at Swanage, says : — " The curious fact that only lower jaws
" should have turned up among the Stonesfield mammalian remains
" has often been the subject of speculation or remark. The same, to
" a certain extent, has held good with the remains found in the

" Purbeck beds In these minute creatures, unless the bone

" be complete, and, supposing it to be a long bone, with both its
" articular surfaces perfect, it is almost hopeless, or at any rate very
" discouraging, to attempt to make out the creature that yielded it ;
" whereas the smallest fragment of a jaw, with a minute tooth in it,

LUBBOCK ON THE KJOKKENMODDINGS. 499

" speaks volumes of evidence at the first glance. This I believe to be
" one great reason why we hear so much of jaw remains, and so little
" of other bones." No doubt it is so, but these observations, made
by Prof. Steenstrup, aiforcl a farther explanation of the fact, and it
is to be regretted that the parts of the long bones which are most
important to the palaeontologist are also those which are preferred
by beasts of prey.

In every case, the bones which contain marrow are split open in
the manner best adapted for its extraction, and this peculiarity, which
has not yet been observed in bones from the true tertiary strata, is
in itself satisfactory proof of the presence of man. No such indirect
evidence is, however, required ; not only are pieces of burnt wood,
and even the stones forming the hearths, of frequent occurrence, but
flint implements are far from rare. During our short visit to
the Havelse Kjokkenmodding we obtained nine hatchets, of which
Mr. Busk and I were so fortunate as to find three each, besides flint
flakes and sling stones. These latter (PL VII., fig. 12) are so rude, that
except for the circumstances under which they are found, there would
at first sight seem to be but slight grounds for regarding them as
specimens of human art. A more careful examination shows, how-
ever, that the flint has been carefully broken in such a manner as to
adapt it for a sling, while the sharp edges would considerably increase
its power of wounding. The flint flakes are of the ordinary type.

None of the large polished axes have yet been found in the Kjok-
kenmoddings. A very few carefully formed weapons have been
found, but the hatchets are almost invariably rude, though of a
well-marked type (PL VII., figs. 8 and 9) : their angles are not ground
down as in the more perfect weapons from the tumuli (PL VII.,
figs. 1, 2, 5), but are left rough, as in the older specimens from
Amiens and Abbeville, from which, however, they difler altogether in
shape. Small pieces of very coarse pottery have also been discovered.

Sorne of the bones from the Ivjokkenmoddings bear evident
marks of a sharp instrument, and several of the pieces found by us
were in this condition, one in particular having been fashioned into
a pin.

The absence of human remains satisfactorily proves that the
primitive population of the North were free from the practice of can-
nibalism. On the other hand, the tumuli have supplied us with
numerous skeletons of this period.* The skulls are very round, and
in many respects resemble those of the Laps, but have a more pro-
jecting ridge over the eye ; in this respect nearly approaching the
skull found by Dr. Schaffhausen, and figured by Mr. Busk in our
second number. One curious peculiarity was, that their front teeth
did not overlap as ours do, but met one another, as do those of the
Grreenlanders at the present day. This evidently indicates a peculiar
manner of eating.

Much as still remains to be made out respecting the men of the

* Some remarks on this subject by Mr. Busk will appear iu our next number.

[Eds.]

500 ORIGINAL ARTICLES.

Stone period, the facts already ascertained, like a few strokes by a
clever draughtsman, supply ns with the elements of an outline sketch.
Carrying our imagination back into the past, we see before us on the
low shores of the Danish Archipelago a race of small men, with heavy
overhanging brows, round heads, and faces probably much like those
of the present Laplanders. As they must evidently have had some
protection from the weather, it is most probable that they lived iu
tents made of skins. The total absence of metal from the Kjokken-
moddings proves that they had not yet any weapons except those made
of wood, stones, horns, and bones. Their principal food consisted of
shell-fish, but they were able to catch fish, and often varied their diet
by game caught in hunting. It is, perhaps, not uncharitable to con-
clude that, when then hunters were unusually successful, the whole
community gorged itself with food, as is the case with many savage
races at the present time. It is evident that marrow was considered
a great delicacy, and every single bone which contained any was split
open in the manner best adapted to extract the precious morsel.

The remains of the wild swan, which is only a winter visitor, and
the state in which some of the deer-horns are found, prove that we
have not here to do with mere summer quarters, and render it highly
probable that the inhabitants resided on these spots all the year
round, except, indeed, when obliged to move in search of shellfish, as
is the case even now with the Euegians, whose mode of life (Darwin's
Journal, p. 234), gives us a vivid and probably correct idea of what
was passing on the shores of the Danish fjords several thousand
years ago.

If the absence of cereal remains justifies us, as it appears to do,
in concluding that they had no knowledge of agriculture, they must
certainly have sometimes suffered from periods of great scarcity,
though, on the other hand, they were blessed in the ignorance of
spirituous liquors, and saved thereby from what is at present the
greatest scourge of Northern Europe.

"While one race of men has thus exterminated another, and has in
its turn been supplanted by a third, great changes in the vegetation
have also taken place. At present the beech woods are the pride of
the country, and are considered by the Danes to be the finest in the
world. Many of the trees are of great size, and the forests are popu-
larly supposed to have existed from time immemorial. This, however,
is a mistake, as is proved by the trees found in the peatbogs. Some
of these bogs, which are known in Denmark under the name of
Skovmose, are small and deep depressions which have been gradually
filled up by the growth of peat, and by the trunks of trees which
grew on the edge and fell into the hollow. The lowest portion of
the deposit consists, however, entirely of peat, and it is only in the
upper part that the tree stems are found. It was at first supposed
that these were blown down by the wind, but it has been observed
that their heads always lie towards the centre of the moss. When
this latter is of small diameter, it sometimes happens that the stems
from one side cross those from the other, and the whole depression

LUBBOCK ON THE KJOKKENMOBBINGS. 501

is as completely choked up with trees as if they were artificially
arranged in it.

At the lower part of the deposit, immediately above the peat, the
trees are all pines, (Pi?ius sylvestris). They attain a diameter of
three feet, and their magnificent size proves how well the c^juitry
Avas at that time adapted to their wants, while the propo N of
their length to their diameter shows that they were " drawn *y i5y
growing close to one another, though for a long while pines have ceased
to grow naturally in Denmark. As we rise nearer to the surface of
the peat we find them gradually replaced by oaks, while these latter
are succeeded by beeches. No antiquities are found in the lowest
amorphous peat, but stone weapons are found amongst the pines :
an interesting fact, when coupled with the presence in the " Kjbk-
kenmbddings" of the Tetrao urogallus, whose food consists mamly
of pine buds.

Articles of bronze have not been found below the oaks : while
iron occurs only among the beeches. Thus we find in Denmark
three great periods of arborescent vegetation, corresponding to the
three great stages of civilization : the Stone period, with the pine
forests ; the Bronze age with the oaks ; and finally, the great beech
woods, which must have been already the most striking feature of
the country, even before the introduction of iron, as we know that
they have continued to be ever since.

It is a question whether the Kjokkenmoddings were not more
ancient than the period previously known as the Stone age: and
whether, therefore, this earliest age ought not to be subdivided.
Certain it is that the Kjokkenmoddings have not yet yielded
any of the carefully formed axes and knives, but these weapons
were evidently the result of toilsome and skilful workmanship,
and we should not expect to find the choicest works of art in a
modern dustheap. On the other hand, the barrows of the stone
period in which the more elaborate weapons are found, have not
yet supplied us with the small and rude axes which occur in the
Kjokkenmoddings, but the fact is that, in all probability, these
would, until the last few years, have attracted no attention and
been overlooked, so that it remains to be ascertained whether, now
that their interest is acknowledged, they will not be found, and it is
stated that some barrows recently opened have contained rude, as
well as well worked, weapons. But even if they should hereafter
prove to be absent, still the fact would not be conclusive, as probably
only the chiefs and their families were "buried in the great barrows,
and in this case it might well be argued that the best weapons only
would be buried with them.

Possibly it will hereafter be ascertained that while in the older
tumuli of the Stone period, weapons of the best workmanship only
were deposited, the later ones contain also ruder and less perfect
specimens. There is indeed evidence that, even at this early period,
religious institutions and customs, at first full of earnest meaning-
tended to degenerate into mere forms. In the earliest times the

502 OEIGIXAL RETICLES.

warrior was buried with his favorite weapons ; gradually the inevitable
tendency of ceremonies, or possibly a dim sense that axes and knives
were more useful to the living than the dead, caused an alteration
of the custom, and small models of the weapons were buried instead
of tlyg weapons themselves.

r ^ same thing has been observed by M. Boucher de Perthes,
Galley of the Somme. Pie has discovered in the peat some
i places belonging probably to the Bronze age, and he supposes
tu. it was customary for every one who attended the funeral, to
cast some offering on the grave as a token of respect to the departed.
Of these rude flints M. Boucher de Perthes possesses a great collec-
tion, and it is evident that they were never intended to be of any
actual use. Mr. Franks, of the British Museum, informs me that
much of the jewellery found in Etruscan tombs is so thin that it
could not have been worn during life ; and in Egyptian graves also
models occur, instead of the weapons or implements themselves.

M. Worsaae is of opinion that there is sufficient evidence to in-
dicate the separation of the Danish Stone age into two periods.
However this may be, the remains found near Amiens and Abbeville,
seem to me to justify our doing so, at least as regards France, but
we did not see in Copenhagen any Danish flint weapons at all re-
sembling the older forms from the gravels capping the hills on each
side of the valley of the Somme, nor have any flint weapons of this
type as yet been found in Ireland.

It is manifestly impossible to affix a date in years to the forma-
tion of the Kjokkenmoddings, which, nevertheless are, as evidently,
of immense antiquity. We have seen that at the time of the Romans
the country was, as now, covered by beech forests, and yet we know
that during the Bronze age, beeches were absent, or only represented
by a few stragglers, while the whole country was covered with oaks.
This change implies a great lapse of time, even if we suppose that
but a few generations of oaks succeeded one another. We know
also that the oaks had been preceded by pines, and that the country
was inhabited even then.

Again, the immense number of objects belonging to the Bronze
age which have been found in Denmark from time to time, and the
great number of burial places, appear to justify the Danish Archaeo-
logists in assigning to this period a very great lapse of time. The
same arguments apply with even more strength to the remains of the
Stone period, as a country the inhabitants of which live by hunting
and fishing can never be thickly populated ; and, on the whole, the
conclusion is forced upon us, that the country must have been inhabi-
ted several thousand years before the Christian Era.

On the other hand no flint implements have yet been found in
Denmark, which resemble those occurring in the drift near Amiens,
Abbeville, and elsewhere. Not only, however, the great differences
in the workmanship, but also the absence of any trace of the Elephant
or Ehinoceros, with the human remains in Denmark, and their well
attested presence in France, in the same strata with the flint imple-

LUBBOCK ON THE KJOKKENMODDIXGS. 503

Hients, tend to prove the greater antiquity of the remains found near
the Somme. These flint weapons have been actually found in situ
by Prestwich, Flower, G-audry, Pouchet, and others ; but even with-
out this satisfactory evidence, the genuineness of the weapons is, as
M. Boucher de Perthes and Mr. Prestwich have shown, completely
proved by their condition. Those which have lain in siliceous or
chalky sands have a peculiar vitreous lustre very different from the
comparatively dead surface generally presented by a newly broken
flint. Mr. Evans, however, has shown me a flint in which the recently
fractured surfaces have a gloss, certainly very much like that of the
Amiens and Abbeville specimens, which therefore, though generally
a good voucher for antiquity, cannot in all cases be implicitly relied
on. More conclusive is the evidence when the flints have lain " in
" ochreous sand, by which, especially if argillaceous, they are stained
" yellow, whilst in ferruginous sands and clays they assume a brown
" colour," and in some beds they become white and porcellaneous.
As will be seen, however, in PL VII., fig. 11, this alteration of
colour is quite superficial, and follows the outline of the present sur-
face, whereas if the weapon had been tampered with by the workmen,
they would have broken through the outer coating and exposed the
dark flint, as has, in fact, been done by the accidental fracture shown
in the figure.

Moreover, the great antiquity of these most interesting remains
is farther proved by the position of the gravel beds in which they are
found. Not only are these strata covered by several feet of sand, con-
taining unbroken though very delicate land and freshwater shells, and
this again by brick earth, but they cap the hills on each side of the
Somme valley, which must therefore have been excavated, in part at
least, since they were deposited. The lower parts of the valley are
now occupied by peat, in which are found remains referred by M.
Boucher de Perthes to the Stone period, and it would seem there-
fore that we have here, at least, good evidence of two Stone ages,
one of which would be much older than the other, and would carry
back the origin of the human race to a date, at least, twice as remote
as that usually assigned to it. Further, it is evident that man must
have originated in a hot climate, and he could not have supported
the climate of the North until he had made some steps in civilization ;
at least, until he had learnt to light a fire and provide himself with
a dwelling place.

Intensely interesting, therefore, as are the antiquities of Northern
Europe, it is, after all, in a hotter part of the world, and probably in
the tropics themselves, that we must look for the true cradle of the
human race.

Prof. Steenstrup has promised to send us an account of his recent
progress in the investigation of the Kjokkenmoddings ; and I hope
also, perhaps in a future number of this Eeview, to compare the early
history of Denmark, as indicated by the tumuli and the ancient
weapons, with that of other neighbouring countries.

The length to which this article has already extended, prevents

VOL. I. — S". H. R. 3 T

04 ORIGINAL ARTICLES.

me from doing more at present than mention that flint hatchets
closely resembling those from Amiens and Abbeville, were found at
Hoxne in Suffolk, and described by Mr. Frere, in 1797. Some of the
oval form were found in Kent-Hole, near Torquay. In the British
Museum is a similar specimen which was found with the skeleton of
an elephant in London many years ago, and more recently a few have
been discovered near Heculvers by Mr. Leech, Mr. Evans, and Mr.
Prestwich, at Biddenham in Bedfordshire by Mr. Wyatt, at Grodalming
in Surrey by Mr. Whitburn, and at Abbot's Langley by Mr. Evans.
"We may reasonably hope that the persevering researches of these
gentlemen, and especially of Messrs. Evans and Prestwich, will be
rewarded by similar discoveries in other places.
Description of Plate VII.

Fig. 1. A fiint axe from a tumulus, j Nat. size.

Fig. 2. Another form of stone axe with a hole for a handle, ^ Nat. size.

Fig. 3. A flint saw, \ Nat. size-

Fig. 4. A flint sword, s; Nat. size.

Fig. 5. A flint chisel, \ Nat. size.

Fig. 6. One of the "cores" from which the flint flakes are splintered, \ Nat. size.

Fig. 7. One of the flakes, \ Nat. size.

Figs 8-9. Rude axes from the Kjokkenmodding at Havelse, \ Nat. size.

Fig. 10. Flint axe from drift at Moulin Quignon near Abbeville, \ Nat. size.

Fig. 1 1 • Flint axe from Abbeville, showing that the part stained white is
parallel to the present surfaces, and that the weathering has taken place
since the flint was worked into its present shape, £ Nat. size.

Fi"-. 12. Sling-stone from the Kjokkenmodding at Havelse, \ Nat. size.

XI. Report on the Present State of our Knowledge oe the

Species of Aptertx living in New Zealand. By Philip Lutley
Sclater, M.A., Ph. D., F.R.S., and Dr. F. von Hochstetter.
[Head at the Meeting of the British Association, September, 1861.]

There appears to be evidence of the present existence of at least
four species of birds of the genus Apteryx in New Zealand, con-
cerning which we beg to offer the following remarks, taking them
one after the other in the order that they have become successively
known.

1. Apteryx atjstralis.

Apteryx ausiralis, Shaw, Nat. Misc. xxiv. pi. 1057, 1058, and Gen.
Zool. xiii. p. 71.
„ Bartlett, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1850, p. 275.

,' „ Yarrell, Trans. Zool. Soc. I. p. 71, pi. 10.

The Apteryx australis was originally made known to science about
the year 1813, from an example obtained in New Zealand by Captain
Barclay of the ship "Providence." This bird, which was deposited
in the collection of the late Lord Derby, was afterwards described at
greater length in 1833, in the Transactions of the Zoological Society
by Mr. Yarrell, and was still, at that date, the only specimen of this
singular form known to exist. Examples of Apteryges subsequently
obtained, though generally referred to the present species, have

SCLATER AND HOCHSTETTER, REPORT ON APTERVX. 505

mostly belonged to the closely allied Apteryx Man I, .'III of Bartlett, as
we shall presently show, though specimens of the true Apteryx aus-
tralis exist in the British Museum, and in several other collections.

The original bird described by Dr. Shaw is stated by Mr. Bartlett
(Proc. Zool. Soc. 1850, p. 276) to have come from Dusky Bay, in the
province of Otago, Middle Island, whence Dr. Mantell's specimen,
upon which Mr. Bartlett grounded his observations as to the dis-
tinctness of this species from Apteryx Mantelli, was also procured.

Dr. Hochstetter was able to learn nothing of the existence of
this Apteryx in the province of Nelson, in the same island. In fact,
the species is so closely allied to the Apteryx Mantelli as to render it
very desirable that further examples of it should be obtained, and a
rigid comparison instituted between the two. For the present, how-
ever, we must regard this form of Apteryx as belonging to the south-
ern portion of the Middle Island.

2. Apteryx Owenii.

Apteryx Owenii, Gould, P. Z. S. 1817, p. 91.
„ „ Birds of Austr. vi. pi. 3.

Owen's Apteryx, which is readily distinguished from the preced-
ing species and A. Mantelli, by its smaller size, transversely barred
plumage and slender bill, was first described by Mr. Gould in 1817,
from an example procured by Mr. F. Strange, and "believed to have
" been obtained from the South Island." Since that period other
specimens have been received in this country, which have sufficed to
establish the species, and from the information obtained by Dr. von
Hochstetter, there is no doubt of this being the common Apteryx of
the northern portion of the Middle Island.

" In the spurs of the Southern Alps on Cook's Strait, in the
" province of Nelson," says Dr. von Hochstetter,. " that is, in the
" higher wooded mountain- valleys of the AVairau chain, as also west-
" wards of Blind-Bay, in the wooded mountains between the Mo-
" tucka and Aorere valleys, Kiwis of this species are still found in
great numbers. During my stay in the province of Nelson I had
u myself two living examples (male and female) of this species. They
" were procured by some natives, whom I sent out for this purpose,
" in the upper wooded valleys of the river State, a confluent of the
" Aorere, in a country elevated from 2000 to 3000 feet above the sea
" level. It appears that this Apteryx still lives very numerously and.
" widely spread in the extended southern continuations of the Alps."

3. Apteryx Mantelli.

Apteryx australis, Gould, Birds of Australia, xi. pi. 2.
Apteryx Mantelli, Bartlett, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1817, p. 93.
The characters which distinguish this commoner and better
known Apteryx from the true A. australis of Shaw were pointed out
by Mr. Bartlett at the meeting of the Zoological Society, held on the
10th Dec. 1850: — " This bird differs from the original Apteryx %m*
" tralis of Dr. Shaw," says Mr. Bartlett, "in its smaller size, its

506 ORIGINAL ARTICLES.

" darker and more rufous colour, its longer tarsus, which is scutel-
" lated in front, its shorter toes and claws, which are horn-coloured ;
" its smaller wings, which have much stronger and thicker quills ; and
" also in having long straggling hairs on the face."

Mr. Bartlett tells us that, as far as he has been able to ascertain,
all specimens of Apteryx Mantelli are from the Northern Island, and
this is completely confirmed by Dr. von Hochstetter's observations,
which are as follows : —

" In the northern districts of the Northern Island this species of
" Apteryx appears to have become quite extinct. But in the island
" called Houtourou, or Little Barrier Island, a small island, com-
" pletely wooded, rising about 1000 feet above the sea level, and only
" accessible when the sea is quite calm, which is situated in the Gulf
* of Hauraki, near Auckland, it is said to be still tolerably common.
" In the inhabited portions of the southern districts of the Northern
" Island also, it is become nearly exterminated by men, dogs, and
" wild cats, and here is only to be found in the more inaccessible and
" less populous mountain-chains, that is in the wooded mountains
" between Cape Palliser and East Cape."

" But the inhabitants of the Northern Island speak also of two
" sorts of Kiwi, which they distinguish as Kiwi-nui (Large Kiwi) and
" Kiwi-iti (Small Kiwi). The Kiwi-nui is said to be found in the
" Tuhna district, west of Lake Taupo, and is in my opinion Apteryx
" Mantelli. Kiwi-iti may possibly be Apteryx Owenii, though I can
" give no certain information on this subject."

4. Apteryx maxima.

" The Fireman," Gould in Birds of Australia, sub. tab. 3, vol. vi.
Apteryx maxima, Bp. Compt. Rend. Acad. Sc.
" Roa-roa" of the natives of Southern Island.

The existence of a larger species of Apteryx in the Middle Island
of New Zealand has long ago been affirmed, and though no speci-
mens of this bird have yet reached Europe, the following remarks of
Dr. von Hochstetter seem to leave no reasonable doubt of its actual
existence : —

" Besides Apteryx Owenii a second larger species lives on the
" Middle Island, of which, although no examples have yet reached
" Europe, the existence is nevertheless quite certain. The natives
" distinguish this species not as a Kiwi, but as a Boa, because it is
" larger than A. Owenii (Roa meaning long or tall).

" John Rochfort, Provincial Surveyor in Nelson, who returned
" from an expedition to the western coast of the province while I
" was staying at Nelson, in his report, which appeared in the ' Nel-
" son Examiner,' of August 24th, 1859, describes this species, which
" is said to be by no means uncommon in the Paparoa elevation, be-
" tween the Grey and Buller rivers, in the following terms : — 'A
" ' Kiwi about the size of a turkey, very powerful, having spurs on
" ' his feet, which, when attacked by a dog, defends himself so well
" ' as frequently to come off victorious.'

SCLATER AND HOCHSTETTER, EEPORT ON APTERYX. 507

" My friend, Julius Haart, a German, who was my travelling
" companion in New Zealand, and in the beginning of the year 1860
" undertook an exploring expedition to the southern and western
" parts of the province of Nelson, writes to me in a letter, dated
" July, 1860, dated from ten miles above the mouth of the river
" Buller, on the mountains of the Buller chain, which at a height of
" from 3000 to 4000 feet, were at that time, it being winter in New
" Zealand, slightly covered with snow, that the tracks of a large
" Kiwi of the size of a turkey were very common in the snow, and
" that at night he had often heard the singular cry of this bird, but
" that as he had no dog with him he had not succeeded in getting an
" example of it. He had, nevertheless, left with some natives in
" that district a tin case with spirit, and promised them a good
" reward if they would get him one of these birds in spirits, and send
" it to Nelson by one of the vessels which go from time to time to
" the west coast."

In concluding this brief report, we wish to call attention to the
importance of obtaining further knowledge respecting the recent
species of this singular form of birds, whilst it is yet possible to do
so. We see that one of them — the Apteryx Mantelli — is already fast
disappearing, whilst its history, habits, mode of nidification, and
many other particulars respecting it are as yet altogether unknown.
We therefore trust that such members of this Association as have
friends or correspondents in any part of New Zealand will impress
upon them the benefits that they will confer on science, by endea-
vouring to procure more specimens of, and additional information
concerning, the different species of the genus Apteryx.

LII. — Note upon the northern limit of the Quadrumana in
the New World. By P. L. Sclater, M.A., Ph. D., F.B.S.

In looking through the plates and letterpress of Johnston's Phy-
sical Atlas and the works of other authorities who treat of the geogra-
phical distribution of the Mammalia, I have observed that the northern
limit of the range of the Quadrumana in the New World is altogether
incorrectly laid down, and that the species assigned to the countries
north of the isthmus of Panama are wrongly named. Although I
cannot pretend to be able to set this matter quite right, as the
correct determination of the species of Quadrumana which inhabit
the northern (or trans-panamanic) province of the Neotropical re-
gion must remain in abeyance, until more specimens of these animals
have been brought to Europe from Central America, and their
differential characters more carefully studied, yet I have been able to
acquire, through the kindness of some of my correspondents and
during visits to several Zoological Museums, some information upon
this point which I hope will be sufficient to rectify a not unimpor-
tant error in geographical distribution.

508 ORIGINAL ARTICLES.

Having paid much attention to the birds of Southern Mexico,
Guatemala and the adjoining republics of Central America, I have
found it a general rule that this northern portion of the great
South-American (or Neotropical) region possesses specifically dis-
tinct representatives of all the more important groups which charac-
terize the Ornithology of Tropical South America. It not unfre-
quently happens that these northern outliers of the genus are the finest
in colouring and the most outre or exaggerated in form, of the whole
group. In illustration of this remark I may adduce the case of the
Guatemalan Cotinga (Cotinga amabilis) — certainly pre-eminent in
coloration even among this lovely brotherhood. The naked-throated
Umbrella-bird (Cephalopterus glahricollis) of Yeragua, the Three
wattled Fruit-eater (Chasmorhynchus tricaruiiculatus) of the same
country, and the celebrated Long-tailed Trogon or Quesal of the
mountains of Yera Paz (Trogon paradise us) are other instances of
the same kind, and the list might be still further extended without
much difficulty. When the Quadrumana of the trans-panamanic pro-
vince are properly worked out, I believe it will be found that each
of the leading genera of Tropical America possesses a representative
within the limits of this special Fauna.

But first as regards the northern limit of the Quadrumana in the
New "World. This is given in the plate of Johnston's Physical
Atlas by a line across Honduras, which is supposed to mark the
northern limit of Myeetes seniculus. But I know of no authority for
the occurrence of this Mycetes in Honduras, and the true limit of the
family must be fixed, as I shall presently show, much further north.

The well-known German Naturalist, Deppe, who travelled in
Mexico in 1824-7, writes in a letter dated from Xalapa, Feb. 18th,
1825 :—

" In Alvarado* we heard that 15 or 18 leagues further south on
the St. Martin we should find Monkeys. On Christmas-day we set
out in a canoe with Indians to Hacatalpa, and here took horses
to go to the mountains eight leagues farther. Having arrived at
the appointed spot we were informed to our great sorrow that the
Monkeys had deserted this locality three weeks since for a spot
where fruit was more abundant. There were three species described
to me, (1) a large white one, 4 feet high ; (2) a smaller one, 2\ feet
high (apparently the same as that which I now send) ; and (3) a
small one quite black. I was told that they would return in the
beginning of February in large troops."

Dr. "W. Peters, the Director of the Museum at Berlin, who has
most kindly supplied me with the above extract, adds,

" Mr. Deppe, who is still alive and whom I questioned about the
specimen in our Museum writes to me, ' I bought the Ateles alive in
Alvarado. It was caught by a Mexican about twenty hours distant
from the city. Afterwards, on my journey from Caxaia to Alvarado,
I watched, in a forest near Yalle Beal, a great number of the same

* Deppe remained in Alvarado during December, 1824, and January, 1825.

SCLATEE ON THE NORTHERN LIMIT OF QXTADEUMANA. 509

species for more than six hours together, but having no large shot I
was unable to procure any.' Mr. Deppe told me afterwards that
this Ateles was the only Monkey he got during his whole stay in
Mexico from 1824 to 1827.

I have had the opportunity of examining this specimen in the Berlin
Museum in company with Dr. Peters. It is an Ateles of a species
allied to A. beelzebuth of Brazil and A. liybridus of New Granada,
but probably referable to Ateles frontatus — Br achy teles {Eriodes)
frontatus, Gray, (Voy. Sulphur). However this may be, it indubitably
proves the existence of a species of this genus in Mexico, as far north
as between 18° and 19° N.L. That this Ateles ranges still further
north seems amply proved on the evidence of M. Auguste Salle —
the well-known Naturalist and traveller — from whom I have re-
ceived the following communication relative to this subject : —

" La limitela plus nord on on trouve des Singes a ma connaissance, est l'Etat de
San Luis Potosi, aux environs du 23e degre de latitude, dans le haut de la riviere
de Tampico egalement. On en trouve une espece dans les montagnes et lieux tres
deserts de l'Etat de Veracruz, aux environs de Cordova entre cette ville et Huatusco
par le 19°. Je crois que c'est un Ateles, je ne sais pas au juste. Quoique tres com-
miin je ne l'ai pas vu aux Galeries du Museum, mais je tacherai de vous en donner
le nom; a Cordova on les nomme Changos. A la cote entre Veracruz et Tampico
il y a de grandes forets ou en trouve. On dit qu 'il j en a deux cspeces dans l'Etat
de Chiapas."

In G-uatemala Mr. Salvin informs me that Monkeys are rather
scarce and difficult to be seen, but that three species have been
described to him as existing there. Of one of them he has brought
home an imperfect skin, which appears to be that of an Ateles.

In Nicaragua, M. Salle states that he found four species of Qua-
drumana during his travels. Examples of two of these were pur-
chased by the British Museum in 1848 through Mr. Cuming, and
are now in the collection. One of the species is an Ateles (probably
A. frontatus), the second is a Mycetes, described and figured by
Dr. Gray in the Proceedings of the Zoological Society for 1848* under
the name M. palliatus, and erroneously stated to be from Caraccas.

Further south, in Costa Bica, Dr. Peters informs me that the late
Dr. Hoffman, who up to the time of his lamented death, worked
vigorously at the Fauna of this interesting region, met with three
species of Quadrumana and forwarded examples of all to Berlin,
namely, — ■

1. An Ateles, apparently the same as Deppe's Mexican specimen
— though varying in colour. " This species," writes Dr. Hoffman,
" varies very much in colour from red "" to grey. It is called Mono
Colorado, and has a flavour like mutton."

2. Mycetes palliatus, Gray.

3. Cebus hypoleucus, Geoffr., called in Costa Bica Mono caro
biancho. " It bellows like a dog," says Dr. Hoffman.

The Zoological Society have lately received some living examples
of the Hapale oedipus, said to have been obtained from Chiriqui, and

* See P. Z. S. 1848, Mammalia, pi. VI.

510 ORIGINAL ARTICLES.

Mr. Bridges during his residence at David, in the same country, pro-
cured a skeleton of a Chrysothrix, perhaps G. sciurea.

It thus appears evident that species of Monkeys of the genera
Mycetes, Ateles, Cebus, Chrysothrix and Hapale are found north-
wards of the isthmus of Panama, and that the Ateles extends its
range up to the 23° N.L.

This is all the information I have been enabled to collect con-
cerning the Quadrumana of the trans-panamanic province. I sin-
cerely trust that Mr. Salvin, who is now returning to Central America
in company with Mr. Godwin, for the purpose of making collections
in Natural History, will endeavour to render our knowledge of this
subject more perfect. The ignorance which prevails concerning it is
mainly attributable to the carelessness and negligence Naturalists
have hitherto shown as to the record of precise localities.

LIII. — On the Myology or the Orang Utang (Simia Morio).
Ey "William Selby Church, B.A., Lee's Eeader in Anatomy,
Christ Church, Oxford.

Haying had an opportunity of dissecting the muscles of an Orang
Utang, and of comparing them with those of the Magot {Inuus
Rhesus) and of the Cebus Capuchinus, I have put together the fol-
lowing remarks on their myology, in the hope of drawing general
attention to some points which have usually been overlooked.

I shall endeavour to point out the variations existing in the
different species of the Quadrumana, as illustrated by the above-
mentioned species, and to show how much closer is the connexion
between the myological structure of the Platyrrhine prehensile-tailed
Cebus and the Magot, than that existing between the latter animal
and the Orang ; secondly, to furnish parallels between the recorded
variations of the muscular system in man and the arrangement of
the muscles in the Quadrumana; and thirdly, to show that the
Quadrumana differ among themselves in those points in which they
differ from man: the distribution of the Flexor Longus Hallucis
and Pollicis, for instance, differing as widely in the Orang, from that
found in the bulk of the Quadrumana, as it does from that which
obtains in man.

Unfortunately, comparative anatomists have almost exclusively
confined their investigations to the osteology and nervous system of
the Bimana and Quadrumana ; and, while they have frequently noticed
the approach which the lower races of mankind make to the quadru-
manous type in those parts of their organization, few or no inquiries
have been made into the myology of these races, and consequently
the abnormal variations here mentioned are exclusively obtained from
civilized races.

In many of the wild races, the external form of the limbs differs
slightly from that of the civilized ; and I think it may be fairly pre-

CHURCH ON THE MYOLOGY OF THE ORANG UTANG. 511

sumed that the structure of the muscles would not unfrequently
present corresponding modifications.*

In the following remarks, I have first described each muscle as it
appeared in the Orang, and I have then compared it with the accounts
given of the corresponding muscle in the Magot, Cebus, and other
Quadrumana, and, lastly, with any similar variations which I have
found recorded as occurring in man.

The works to which most frequent reference is made are —
Eecherches d'Anatomie comparee sur le Chimpansee, par W. Vrolik ;
M. Duvernoy's Memoir on the Myology of the Grorilla and other
Anthropomorphous Apes, Archives du Museum d'Histoire Naturelle,
torn. viii. ; Encyclopedic Anatomique, traduit d' Allemand par A. J. L.
Jourdan, torn. iii. ; Mr. J. Hallett's Paper in the Edinburgh Medical
and Surgical Journal, 1847 ; Anatomie Comparee, Eecueil de Planches
du Myologie, dessinees par G-. Cuvier ; Prof. Owen, Proceedings of
the Zoological Society, vol. i.

I have confined my remarks almost entirely to the muscles of the
anterior and posterior extremities, as they are the most subject to
variations in the various orders of the Mammalia.

The Orang was a young specimen, and its muscles were but feebly
developed, forming a very strong contrast to those of the Magot,
which was an old individual, and very muscular. The age of the
Orang may perhaps account for some of the differences between my
dissections and those of Prof. Owen and M. Duvernoy.

The Muscles of the Anterior Extremity.

The inferior portion of the Trapezius arose from ten dorsal verte-
brae, and its fibres did not communicate with those of the Latissimus
dorsi, as they do in the Chimpanzee. f

The Rhomboidei Major and Minor were fused together, as in the
Chimpanzee : in the latter animal this muscle does not reach the
occipital bone, but the Orang in this respect resembles the Inui and
Cynocephali.

The Levator Scapulce, called Traclielo-scapularis by Duvernoy,J
is inserted into the four anterior cervical vertebra?. This muscle is
described by Duvernoy as having one digitation inserted into the
occipital bone, another fusing with the sterno-mastoid, and three
others into the cervical vertebra?. In the Grorilla, he describes three
distinct fascicles ; one of which is inserted into the transverse process
of the Atlas, the other into the second, third, fourth, and fifth cervical
vertebra?. In the Magot, he describes it as I found it in this Orang.

* Mr. Simpson noticed an undue shortness of the thumbs in the western Eskimos,
and the absence of calf and flatness of the thighs has been often noticed in wild races

T)V tl**} VfM 10T*S

f Kech. cl'Anat. Comp. sur le Chimpansee, par W. Vrolik, p. 17.
% Duvernoy, Archives du Museum d'Histoire Naturelle, torn. viii. p. 74.
VOL. I.-r-N. H. R. 3U

512 ORIGINAL ARTICLES.

The slip to the sterno-mastoid, which Duvernoy found in the Orang,
occurs as an accidental variety in man, as is mentioned by Theile.*

The Glavio-trachelien, or Acromio-trachelien, arose from the clavicle
alone, and was inserted into the inner side of the transverse process
of the atlas. In the Gorilla, it has the same insertion, but it arises
from the acromion. f

The Latissimus Dor si possessed much the same origin as in man,
but scarcely reached so far up the back. The fibres which arose from
the dorsal vertebrae remained distinct, and did not interlace with those
of the inferior portion of the muscle ; and, as they curved round the
lower margin of the Teres Major, they formed a distinct head, sepa-
rated from the rest of the muscle by a septum of dense tissue, which
was inserted partly into the external fascia of the arm, and partly into
the humerus, together with the tendon of the Teres Major. The
larger and inferior portion of the muscle passed on to be inserted by
a broad tendon, which curved round the humerus, and was inserted
into the inner surface of that bone an inch and a half below the bicipital
groove. At the distance of an inch and a half from the point of
insertion, a strong muscular slip, called by Duvernoy the Dorso-
epitrochlien, is given off, which passes down along the inner side of
the long head of the Triceps, to be inserted into the fascia of the arm
and the olecranon process of the ulna.:};

In the Grorilla, the Dorso-epitrochlien receives a small slip from the
tendon common to the Biceps and the Coraco-brachialis (Duvernoy,
1. c, p. 80.) In the Cebus, the tendon of the portion coming from the
dorsal vertebrae is not inserted together with that of the Teres Major,
but close to it This modification of the Latissimus Dor si appears
common to all the Quadrumana, and must greatly relieve the strain
thrown on the muscles of the arm and shoulder by the weight of the

* Encyclopedic Anatomique, traduit d'Allemand par A. J. L. Jourdan, torn. iii.
p. 124.

f This, the Acromio-basilar muscle of Vicq. d'Azyr, is eminently characteristic
of the lower Mammalia ; so that M. Duvernoy (second edition of Cuvier's Lecons,
tome i. p. 371) even says, "On le trouve dans tous les mammiferes, l'homme
excepte, ce qui semblerait prouver qu'il est une des conditions de la station quadru-
pede." Its upper attachment varies in the Mammalian series from the lower
cervical vertebrae (camel) to the occipital bone (rabbit). The human muscular
variety, which appears to make the newest approach to the development of this
muscle, is that observed by R. Wagner (cited in Henle's Handbuch der Systematis-
chen Anatomie des Menschen, Bd. I. 3te. Abtheilung, p. 24) who found an accessory
fasciculus of the Trapezius inserted into the Mastoid process, and remaining separate
as far as the Acromion. The numerous dissectors, who will be busy in our medical
schools during the ensuing winter, might do good service by attending to the
variations of the Trapezius ; and indeed of all those muscles whose attachments in
man differ widely from those presented by the apes — e.g. the Flexor pollicis proprius,
the Extensor i?tdicis,and the luferossei of the hand: the Tibialis anticus, Extcnsores
digitorum brevis, covimunis digitorum, hallucu longus, Flexor brevis digitorum,
Transversus pedis, and Tnterossei of the foot. We shall be glad to receive and to
record examples of such varieties. — [Eds.]

% This muscle is clearly represented in Man by the tendinous band which, as
Halbertsma has shown (Henle, 1. c. p. 183) constantly connects the long head of the
Triceps with the Latissimus dorsi. — [Eds.]

CHURCH ON THE MYOLOGY OF THE ORAKG TJTANO. 513

body when the animal is climbing. Corresponding modifications
will be found in the posterior extremities.

The Teres Major was proportionately a stronger muscle than in
man, and its tendon was inserted over a space of one inch and three-
eighths : this was partly caused by its receiving a slip, as before
mentioned, from the Latissimus Dorsi.

The Teres Minor differed only in its mode of origin ; arising be-
tween the long head of the Triceps and the Infra-Spinatus muscles
from the inferior border of the scapula.

The acromial portion of the Deltoid was inserted separately into
the humerus by a thin tendinous band, while the mass of the muscle
was inserted into the deltoid tuberosity, which was situated lower
down the arm than in man.

In the Magot, it was divided, as stated by Duvernoy, into three
almost distinct portions, which he calls Claviculaire, Coracodienne, et
Sous-epineuse.

The Pectoralis Major arose by three distinct heads ; one coming
from the clavicle, the other two from the sternum and intercostal
cartilages. The upper sternal portion did not, in this instance, reach
higher than the third rib. The lower sternal portion arose from the
costal cartilages, the ensiform appendage, and the sternum : it re-
ceived, opposite the fifth rib, some fibres from the external oblique.
The muscle was inserted by a broad tendon, extending from the
anatomical neck, 2-§- inches down the anterior border of that bone.
The fibres of the clavicular portion form the lowest and those of the
lower sternal portion, the upper part of the tendon, as in man.

In the Chimpanzee (Yrolik, 1. c. p. 18), this muscle has only a
single sternal and clavicular origin. And Prof. Owen* describes it as
formed in the Orang of sterno-humeralis, costo-Jiumeralis, and sterno-
costo-humeralis portions — apparently, therefore, in his specimen, the
clavicular portion was wanting ; neither does Sandifort mention any
clavicular portion in the adult dissected by him.

In the Magot, a thin muscular slip, distinct from the Feet. Major,
and beneath it, was found, which arose from the lower ribs, and
terminated in a thin membranous expansion, which appeared to be
inserted partly into the aponeurosis of the arm, and partly into the
intermuscular septum and the humerus.

In Man, it is by no means unfreqj.ent to find the sternal portion
divided into two or more parts ; the arrangement met with in the
Magot is described in the human subject by Theile ;f and Mr. Hal-
lett % mentions a very similar one as occurring in man.

The Pectoralis Minor presented the same appearance as in man ;
in the Grorilla, Duvernoy states that it is divided into two portions ;
one passing'in front of, the other behind the laryngeal sac.

The two* heads of the Biceps remained distinct until they reached

* Proceedings of the Zool. Society, vol. i. p. 19.

f Encyclopedic Anat. torn. iii. p. 202.

% Mr. C. J. Hallett, Edinburgh Medical and Surgical Journal, 1847. '

514 ORIGINAL ARTICLES.

the lower third of the humerus. Taking its origin by fleshy fibres
alongside of the long head of the Biceps and the Coraco-brachialis, and
receiving fibres from them, was a muscular slip, described as tres mince
in the Chimpanzee (Yrolik, 1. c. p. 19), which, after accompanying
the long head of the Biceps for 2 J inches, leaves it to be inserted into
the humerus and intermuscular septum, immediately below the in-
sertion of the Corecobrachialis, and alongside of the internal portion
of the Triceps. This slip is not mentioned by Duvernoy as occurring
in the Orang, but he found it in the Chimpanzee and Gorilla : in the
latter, it joined the Borso-epitrochlien. It did not occur in the Cebus
or Magot, and Cuvier* has not figured it in any of his plates.

This slip is a frequent occurrence in the human subject, the
Biceps being subject to many variations.

The Triceps differed from that of man only in having the long
head of greater proportionate strength : it had a large insertion, cover-
ing a space of one inch and seven-eighths into the inner and lower
edge of the scapula.

In examining the muscles which move the hand of the Orang, we
find that, whilst the extensor muscles closely correspond with those
of man, the flexor muscles are modified, in order to strengthen the
hand for grasping, while the capability for varied and delicate move-
ments must be impaired.

The Supinator Longus was large, its origin covering a space of 3|-
inches on the humerus, and some of its fibres appearing to interlace
with those of the long head of the Triceps as it passed downwards.

The Extensor Carpi Badialis Longior arose from the external
condyloid ridge of the humerus. The lower two-thirds of this muscle
were tendinous : it was inserted into the radial side of the metacarpal
bone of the index.

The Extensor Carpi Badialis Brevior was larger and stouter than
the preceding muscle, and had a similar insertion into the meta-
carpal bone of the middle finger.

The Extensor Communis Digitorum presented almost exactly the
same appearance as in man. In the Chimpanzee, according to Du-
vernoy, the portion for the index finger is distinct, from its origin.

The Extensor Minimi Digiti arose alongside of the Extensor
Carpi Ulnaris from the ulna and intermuscular septum, passed through
a distinct sheath of the annular ligament, and split into two tendons
inserted into the ring and little fingers. In the Chimpanzee, it is
inserted into the little finger only. The Gorilla has the tendon
strongly connected with that of the Extensor Communis; the muscular
portion seemed also to form part of the Extensor Communis. (Du-
vernoy, 1. c. p. 97.) In the Cebus, it formed part of the same mus-
cular belly as the Extensor Communis, but soon separated from it,
and was inserted as in the Orang. In the Magot, its origin, dispo-
sition, and insertion all resembled those in the Orang.

The Extensor Indicis, instead of being inserted only into the
index, was flattened out, and inserted chiefly into the base of the

* Anat. Comp. Eecueil de Planches dc Myologic, detainees par G. Cuvicr.

CHTJKCH ON THE MYOLOGY OF THE ORANO UTANG. 515

metacarpal bone of the middle finger, sending a few fibres to those of
the index and ring fingers. In two specimens dissected by Duvernoy,
he found this muscle performing the office of an Extensor proprius of
the middle finger only, and in another specimen it was inserted into
both the index and middle fingers ; see also Cuvier, 1. c. pi. 17.

In the Gorilla, according to Duvernoy (p. 97), it goes to the index
only, but it is very weak. In the Chimpanzee, according to Vrolik,
the tendinous insertion is confined to the index, but the muscle at its
origin appears to be fused with the common Extensor. In an Ateles
I found it to terminate by two distinct tendons ; one of which was
inserted into the index and radial side of the middle finger, the other
into the ulnar side of the middle and the ring finger. In the Cebus
and Magot, the two tendons were inserted severally into the middle
and index fingers.*

The extensor muscles in the human subject are very liable to
variations, and the commonest resemble those arrangements found
normally in the Quadrumana. Mr. Hallett says of the Extensor
Minimi Digiti, " it is occasionally absent, being replaced by the
Extensor Communis; more frequently split into two tendons, or
two muscles even, going to the ring and little fingers." The sending
off of a slip to join the tendon of Extensor Communis going to the
ring finger is described by Vesalius.f Theile^ mentions the same ar-
rangement as Mr. Hallett. Mr. Hallett also describes a case in
which the Extensor Indicis was divided into two distinct muscles,
the tendon of one of them going to unite with the index branch
of the common extensor, while the other went to the middle finger :
this was the most complete irregularity met with, but many minor
grades were noticed. Theile§ mentions the tendon being double, a
branch going to the middle finger. ||

The want of specialization of this muscle in the Orang must be
regarded as a lower organization than that of the Chimpanzee or
Gorilla, which, from their myology, I should think are able to point
with their finger in the same manner as man.

The Pronator Teres, Flexor Carpi Padialis, Falmaris Longus, and
Flexor Carpi TJnaris presented the closest resemblance to the same
muscles in man. But the individuality of the several muscles was
less marked ; they appeared to have a common origin from the inner
condyle of the humerus and intermuscular septum, and owing to the
interlacement of their fibres, none of the muscles could be traced out
to their individual origins. The same remarks apply to these muscles
in the Magot and Cebus.

The Flexor Sublimis Digitorwm. The portion of this muscle

* The muscles known as Eoctensores primi intermodii pollicis, Indicis and Minimi
digiti, appear to be mere isolated remnants of the complete second or deep extensor
digitorum found under various forms in the lower Mammalia. — [Eds.]

f Vesalii Opera, vol. i. p. 258. % Encyc. Anat. torn. hi. p. 230.

§ Wagner, Elements of Comp. Anatomy, translated by Tulk, p. 19.

|| And sometimes this muscle is double and its deeper division gives three ten-
clous, to the 2nd, 3rd and 4th fingers. See Hcnle, 1. c, p. 213.

516 ORIGINAL ARTICLES.

which supplies the little finger left the rest of the belly, and became
tendinous 2 J inches above the origin of the other tendons.

The Flexor Profundus arose as in man, but had no tendon going
to the index finger ; as it passed through the annular ligament, the
tendon of the middle finger received a slip from the tendon of the
Flexor Longus Follicis (Indicis), and gave one to that of the ring
finger ; the tendon of the ring finger sent no slip to that of the little
finger, but the tendons supplying these fingers arose from the same
fascicle of the muscle. In the Grorilla, the index tendon is wanting ;
and in both the Cebus and Magot the Flexor Profundus and Flexor
Longus Follicis are intimately connected in the palm.

{To he concluded in the next number.)

In the original scheme for this Department of the Natural History
Review it was proposed to give, in each number, the Bibliography of
all subjects, for the penultimate quarter ; and, in the October number,,
an alphabetical list of Author's names.

It has been found, however, that considerable difficulties oppose the
efficient carrying out of this plan with due regularity and accuracy.
"With the space disposable for the purpose, we have not found it
possible to do more than give the Bibliography for the year 1860,
and to complete the original programme in the present part, which
concludes the volume, with the alphabetical list of Author's names ;
but we have added an index of the new genera of phanerogamic
plants noticed in the Bibliography, which it has been thought would
be acceptable to Botanists.

In future the arrangement will be altered, and the Bibliography,
disposed under the different heads already adopted, will be distri-
buted in the following manner, in which it is believed that the desir-
able regularity and accuracy will be more easy of attainment.
The Natural History Eeview will contain : —

In April : The Bibliography relating to —

I. Zoology, general or mixed.
II. The Vertebrata.
III. The Annllosa.

In July

:— I.

Mollusca.

II.

CffiLENTERATA.

III.

Protozoa.

IV.

Physiology and Anatomy.

October

:— I.

Botanical Bibliography—

1. Phanerogamia.

2. Crtptogamia.

II.

Paleontology.

In January : —Alphabetical List of Authors,

517

LIV.— ALPHABETICAL LIST OF AUTHOES.

Abbott, C. C, 229.
Abbott, C. C. D., 237, 238.
Abich, H., 348.
Adams, A., 224.
Adams, Arthur, 326, 328, 329.
Adams, B. W., 328.
Adams, H., 326.
Adamson, Jno., 344.
Adrian, A., 337.
Aeby, C, 224, 345.
Albers, G. C, 326.
Alder, Joshua, 251, 333.
Alefield, Dr., 91.
Allard, —,244.
Allman, Geo., 241, 333, 334.
Allport, S., 348.
Ambrosi, Fr., 360.
Anca Francois, 348.
Anderson, A. J., 237.
Anderson, Thomas, 251.
Anderson, Thos., 92, 361.
Anderson, J., 348.
Anon., 221, 252.
Ansted, D. T., 348.
Anthony, J. G., 326.
Aplin, C. D'Oyley, 330.
Archer, T. C, 329.
Archer, W., 91, 391.
Ardoino Honore, 361.
Arndt. R., 91.
Arnold, F., 116, 118.
Arnold, Fred., 339.
Ascherson, P., 92.
Aucapitaine, M , 224.
Audubon, J. J., 229.
Austin, T., 348.

Babington, C. C, 92.
Baedeker, F. W. J., 229.
Bach, M., 244.
Baer, K. E. v., 92, 224.
Bail, Th., 386,
Bailey, W. H., 348.
Baillon, H., 92, 361.
Baird, S. F., 229.
Baird, W., 221, 241.
Bakes, H. W., 244.
Ball, Jno., 361.
Baly, J. S., 244.
Barla, J. B., 386.
Barnston, G., 229.
Barrande, J., 348.
Barthelemy, A., 344.
Bartlett, A. D., 224.
Baiy, A. de, 386.

Basslinger, 343.

Baur, A., 241.

Baxter, H. F,339.

Beale, Lionel S., 337, 339.

Beaudouin, J., 349.

Becker, L., 224, 229.

Becker, M. L., 244.

Beddome,R. H., 361.

Bell, C, 346.

Bellier, de la Chavignerie, 244.

Beneden, P. J. v., 252.

Bennett, Geo., 221, 224, 230.

Benson, W. H., 325, 326, 327.

Bentham, G., 93, 361, 362, 363.

Berg, 0., 363.

Berger, H. A. C, 349.

Bergeron, Georges, 381.

Bergsma, M., 363.

Berkeley, M. J., 386.

Bernardi, A. C, 241.

Bernstein, H. A., 238.

Bertolini, — ., 397.

Beurling, P. J., 94.

Beyrich, 349.

Bezold, Alb. v., 339.

Bianca, G., 94.

Bianconi, J. J., 221.

Bibra, — ., 94.

Biclard, J., 346.

Bilharz, A., 224, 344.

Billings, E., 349.

Bischoff, — ., 337.

Bischoff, — ., 397.

Bischoff, T. L. W. and C. Voit, 343.

Binkhorst, 349.

Binney, E. W., 349.

Binney, W. G., 327.

Blanchard. E., 230.

Blanchard, M., 243.

Blanchet, R., 349.

Blackwall, Jn., 243.

Bland, T., 349.

Blanford, W. T. and H. F. 325.

Blyth, Ed., 221, 224, 230, 238.

Boeck, Axel, 241.

Boeck, Chr., 334.

Boheman, C. H., 243.

Bois-Reymond, Emil. de, 337, 339.

Boissier, E., 94.

Bold, T. J., 244.

Bolle, C., 94, 115, 381.

Bonorden, Dr., 387.

Boott, Francis, 363.

Bornemann, J. G., 349.

Borszczow, El., 244, 363.

518

ALPHABETICAL LIST OF AUTHORS.

Bosquet, J., 349.

Botkine, Serge, 342.

Boucher de Perthes, 349.

Boudin, M., 224, 337.

Bourguignat, J. R., 325, 327.

Boussingault, M., 94.

Bouve, T. T. and C. S. Hale, 349.

Bradley, C. L., 252.

Bradley, F. H., 349.

Brandt, J. F., 224, 225, 349.

Brandt, J. F. and G. v. Helmersen, 349.

Brady, A., 349.

Brady, Geo. S.,391.

Bravard, A., 349.

Braun, A., 94, 381.

Braun, A. and Bouche, C, 95.

Bree, C. R, 230, 337.

Brehm, A. E., 230.

Breutel, — ., 397.

Brewer, Th. M., 230.

Briere de Boismont, 337.

Brightwell, T., 391.
Brisont de Barneville, 238.
Broadgeest, P. J., 346.
Broca, Paul, 225, 337.
Brodhurst, Bernard E., 346.
Brodie, P. B., 349.
Bronn, H. G., 221, 222.
Brown, Rohert, 364.
Brown- Sequard, 339, 340.
Bruzelius, R., 242.
Bruhl,C. B., 241.
Bryer, — ., 244.
Bryson, A., 329.
Buchenau, F., 95.
Buckland, F., 222.
Buckley, S. B., 244, 364.
Buckman, J., 349.
Budge, J., 337, 340.
Buffon, — ., 225.
Buhse, F., 364.
Buignet, H., 364.
Bunge, A. d., 95.
Buquet, — .. 244.
Bureall, Ed., 95.
Burmeister, H., 222.
Busk, G , 330, 349.
Butcux, — ., 349.

Cabanis, J , 230.

Cambridge, O. P., 243.

Campen, F. A. W. v., 225.

Candeze, E., 244.

Cantoni, Gaetano, 364.

Capellini, — , and Pagenstecher, — , 350.

Carriere, M., 96, 364.

Carpenter, W. B. and Claparede, E., 252.

Carael, F., 95, 364.

Cams, V. and Engelmann, — ., 222.

Caspary, Robt., 364, 365.

Cassin, Jn., 230.

Castello de Paiva, Baron de, 245.

Castlenau, F. de, 238.

Cazent, G., 366.

Cesati, J. and T. de Xotaris, 96.

Chaboisseau, L'Abbe, 365.

Chapius, — ., and J. Moleschott, 347.

Chapius, P., 346.

Chapman, A. W., 365.

Chapman, E. J., 350.

Chatin, Ad., 96, 365.

Chauveau, A., 337.

Chazereau, — ., 350.

Chenu, J. C, 325.

Chevrolat, — ., 245.

Choisy, Prof., 365.

Chop, K., 350.

Ciccone, M. A., 397.

Claparede, E., 238, 241, 330.

Claparede, E. and J. Lachmann, 335.

Clark, W., 329.

Clarke, J. Lockhart, 340.

Claus, C, 242,245, 252, 334.

Cleland, J., 225.

Clemens, B., 245.

Cobbold, T. S., 225, 252.

Coemans, Eug. 387.

Cohn, F., 365.

Coldstream, W., 365.

Coleman, W. S., 245.

Coinde, J. P., 230.

Cohn, M., 343.

Collingwood, Cuthbert, 327, 337.

Collomb, Ed., 350.

Conrad, A. T., 325.

Conrad, T. A., and W. M. Gabb, 350.

Cope, E. D., 236.

Cooper, J. G., and G. Suckley, 222.

Coruisart, L., 343.

Cosson, E., 365.

Costa, A., and O. G., 245.

Costa, A. C, 366.

Costa, O. G., 222, 350.

Coste, — ., 345.

Cotteau, G., 350.

Couch, J., 238, 242.

Crepin, Fr., 96.

Crocker, C. W., 366.

Crouan, (Freres), 391, 392.

Crewe, H. H., 245.

Crisp, E., 230, 236, 252, 337.

Criiger, Hermann, 96, 366, 381.

Curtis, J., 245.

Czagl, A., 245.

Czermak, — ., 338.

Dalton, J. C, 338.
Damon, Robert, 327, 350.

ALPHABETICAL LIST OF AUTHORS.

519

Danielsen, O. M., 331.

Darach, Dr., 366.

Dareste, C, 230.

Daubeny, Chas., 97.

Davaine, C, 252.

Davidson, u. Dietrich., 343.

Davidson, T., 351.

Davy, J., 230, 33S.

Dawson, J. W., 351.

Deiters, 0., 230, 340.

Delaharpe, J., 222.

Delaharpe, Ph., 351.

Delavaud, C, 366.

Delbos, J., 351.

Deshayes, G. P., 351.

Deslongchamps, E., 351.

Des Murs, O., 230, 231.

Desnoyers, J., 351.

Desvignes, Thos. and Fred. Smith, 245.

Dickie, George, 97, 325, 329.

Dickson, Alex., 366.

Diesing, — ,245.

Dippel, — , 366, 393.

Dohrn, A., 245.

Donkin, A. Scott, 393.

Dor, Henri, 340.

Doumer, — , 245.

Doumet, A., 238.

Dresser, C, 367.

Drouet, H., 325.

Drace, T. C, 393.

Dubois, C. E., 245.

Dubois, Ch. F., 231.

Duchartre, P., 97, 367.

Duckworth, H., 351.

Dufour, Leon, 98, 367.

Dumeril, Augt., 238.

Dumeril, A. M. C, 245.

Duniortier, E., 351.

Duns, J., 231.

Duval- Joure, J., 381.

D'Udekem, — , 243.

Dybowsky, B. v., 242

Dyce, Robt., 238.

Eaton, Dan. C, 382.

Eberth, J., 225, 252.

Eckhard, C, 338, 342, 343.

Eckstein, J., 245.

Edwards, H. Milne, 331, 338, 351.

Egerton, P. de M. G., 351,

Ehrenberg, G., 332, 345.

Eichwald, E. d', 351.

Einbrodt, — , 342.

Elditt, H. L., 245.

Elliott, D. G., 231.

Ellis, G. V., 347.

Emmet, — ,351.

Engel, L. C, 367.
Engelmann, F. W., 336.
Engelmann, G., 98.
Erichson, W. F, 245, 246.
Eschricht, M., 225.
Ewald, —,351.
Eyton, T. C, 231.

Fahrseus, 0. J., 329.

Fairmaine, — , 246.

Faivre, C, 246.

Faivre, E., 346.

Falconer, H., 351, 352.

Falconer, H. and Jos. Prestwich, 351.

Falconer, H. and H. Walker, 352.

Famintzin, A., 393.

Fechner, G. T., 340.

Felder, C. R,, 246.

Fenzl, Ed., 98.

Fermond, Ch., 367, 387.

Fick, A., 345.

Fieber, F. X., 246.

Filippi, F. de, 345.

Filippi, F. and G. B. Verany, 238.

Fischer, S., 242.

Fitzinger, L. J., 225.

Flower, J. W., 352.

Flower, W. IL, 231.

Fologne, E., 246.

Fossat, L., 352.

Foster, Michael, 327, 346.

Fraas, — , 352.

Frauenfeld, G., 98, 246.

Fre, C. de, 246.

Freke, H., 222.

Fremy, E., 99, 367.

Frey, H., 343.

Fridrici, M., 246.

Friedlander, V. and C. Barisch, 343.

Fries, T. M., 118.

Fries, E., 388.

Fritsch, A., 231.

Fromentel, E. de, 352.

Funke, O., 338.

Gabb, W. M. and G. H. Horn, 352.

Galliard, L. O. and L. Brehm, 231.

Garcke, A., 367.

Garner, R., 222, 327.

Gasparini, G., 99.

Gatke, H., 231.

Gaudin, C. and C. Stroz-zi, 352.

Gaudin, Ch. T., 368.

Gaudry, Alb., 352.

Gay, J., 367.

Gegenbauer, K., 334.

Gehir, J. B., 246.

Gennari, Dr. — , 398.

520

ALPHABETICAL LIST OF AUTHORS.

Geoffroy-St. Hilaire, Isid., 222, 225.

Gerstaecker, A., 246, 247.

Gerstfeldt, G., 241, 242, 327.

Gervais, P., 338, 352.

Giebel, C. G., 222, 352.

Gill, Theodore, 238, 247.

Giraudet, E., 338.

Giunti, S. B., 325.

Glaser, — , 398.

Godwin — Austen, R., 352.

Goeppert, H. R., 353, 368.

Goodwin, W., 231.

Gosse, P. H., 332, 334.

Gosselet, J., 353.

Gould, J., 231.

Graeffe, E., 222, 226.

Gratiolet, Pierre, 226, 329.

Gray, Asa, 99.

Gray, G. R., 231.

Gray, J. E., 226, 227, 236, 238, 247,

327, 332, 333.
Greene, J. Reay, 334.
Gregory, J. R., 353.

Grenier, Ch., 368.

Greville, R. K., 393.

Griepe-Kerl O., 353.

Grill, J. W., 222.

Gris, Arthur, 99, 368.

Grisebach, A. H. R., 368, 369.

Grube, Ed., 247, 252.

Gruber, W., 227, 347.

Griinewaldt, M. v., 353.

Grunow, — , 393.

Gubler, Adolphe, 340.

Gubler, Dr., 346.

Guepin, M., 340.

Guenw, M., 338.

Guichenot, Al., 238, 239.

Guiscardi, G-, 327.

G anther, Alb., 222, 236, 239.

Gurlt, E. E., 227.

Gurney, J. H., 231, 237.

Haeckel, E., 253.

Hagen, H. A., 247.

Haidinger, — , 325.

Hall, J., 353.

Hallier, Ernst, 370.

Hannnar, O., 99.

Hammond, W. A. and S. W. Mitchell,

340.
Hampe, E., 116.
Hanstein, Iohannes, 99, 370.
Harless, E., 340, 347.
Harley, Geo., 343.
Harold, — , 247.
Hartel, E., 353.

Harting, P., 353.

Hartinger, Ant., 370.

Hartlaub, G., 231, 232.

Hartung, G., 353.

Harvey, W. H., 99, 394.

Hassall, Arthur Hill, 343.

Hassenkamp, E., 353.

Hasskarl, J. K., 99.

Hauer, Franz, v., 353.

Hawkins, W., 347.

Hazlinsky, F., 118, 382.

Heeger, E., 222.

Heer, Oswald, 353, 370.

Heiden, C. H. G. v., 353.

Heine, Fred., 232.

Helhnann, 232.

Henle, u. Meissner, 338.

Henry, Aime, 370.

Hensel, R., 227.

Henslow, J. S. and E. Skepper, 100.

Henslow, J. S., 353.

Hermann, H. C., 247.

Herrich, Schaffer, 247.

Hessling, Theodore v., Julius Ivollmann,

and Jos. Albert, 347.
Hessling, — v., 329.
Heurler, L. R. v., 115, 116.
Heuflcr, L. v., 382.
Heuglin, T. v., 232.
Heyer, K. and J. Rossman, 100.
Heynemann, F. D., 327.
Hewitson, W. C. and W. Saunders, 247.
Hicks, J. B., 247, 394.
Higgins, H. W., 353.
Hildebrand, Dr., 100.
Hincks, Thomas, 330.
Hincks, W., 227.
His, Prof., 343.
Hislop, S., Andrew Murray, and T. R.

Jones, 353.
Hodge, Geo., 243.
Hodge, H. C, 353.
Hoeven, J. v. der, 227.
Hoffmann, C. E., 340.
Hoffmann, Hermann, 100, 388.
Hoffmann, Rh., 371.
Hoffmeister, W., 100, 389.
Hogg, J., 101, 222, 227, 239.
Hohenacker, R. F., 394.
Holbrook, J. E., 239.
Holdsworth, E. W. H., 222.
Hollard, H., 239.
Holmgren, A. E., 247.
Hooker, J. D., 101, 371.
Hooker, W. J., 115,371.
Hooker, W. J., and G. A. Walker-Ar-

nott, 371.
Honeyman, D., 353.

ALPHABETICAL LIST OF AUT1IOES.

521

Horn, G. H., 333.

Houghton, W., 253, 330.

Howard, J. E., 372.

Hover, H., 347.

Huet, A., 372.

Huxlev, T. H, 223, 243, 330, 335, 354.

HyrtL T., 239, 347.

Inman, Thomas, 338.
Irmisch, Th., 102.

Jackson, — , 354.

Jacobson, Heinr., 342.

Jacquelin clu Val, C, 247.

Jacubowitsch, M. N., 340.

Jager, — , 334.

Jamain, Alex., 372.

Jamieson, J. F., 354.

Jan, — , 237.

Jankee, V. de, 102.

Janson, E. W., 247.

Jardin, Edel, 372.

Jaubert, J. B. and Barthelemy Lapom-

merage, 232.
Jeffreys, J. G., 325, 327, 329, 338.
Johnson, J. Y., 223

Johnstone, W. G. and Alex. Croall, 394.
Jones, J. M., 339.
Jones, T. R., 354.

Jones, T. R. and W. K. Parker, 354.
Jones, T. Wharton, 340.
Jourdain, S., 342.

Junghuhn, F. and J. E. de Vry, 102.
Juratzka, J., 116, 382.
Jurgenson, Theodore, 338.

Ivade, G., 354.

Karsten, H, 103, 372, 394.

Kaup, — , 239.

Keferstein, A., 247.

Keierstein, W. and E. Ehlers, 327, 330,

335.
Keil, Franz, 103.
Kennicott, R., 237.
Kerner, A., 103, 372.
Kinahan, J. R., 354.
Kirkes, W. S., 338.
Kirkley, J. W., 354.
Kirschleger, Fr., 372.
Klinggraff, H. v., 116.
Klotzsch, Fr., 372.
Knapp, J. H, 340.
Kner, R., 239.
Koerber, G. W., 118.
Kolenati, F. A., 243, 247.
Kblliker, A., 239, 240, 345, 347.
Kollmann, J., 340.
Koninck, L. de, 354.

Kornicke, F., 103, 373.
Kostiin, O., 338.
Kotschy, Theodore, 103.
Krause, W., 347.
Krohn, Aug., 242, 327.
Kuhne, W., 340, 346.
Kutscbera, — , 247.
Kutzing, Fr. T., 394.

Lacaze, Duthiers, 327, 328.

Lamont, James, 354.

Landerer, Dr., 374.

Lange, Ish., 374.

Langer, — , 241.

Lartet, E., 354.

Lawes, J. B., J. H. Gilbert, and E.

Pugh, 374.
Lawrence, G. N., 232.
Lawson, George, 374, 394.
Lea, Isaac, 325,328, 329.
Le Conte, J. L., 247.
Lecoq, H., 336.
Lederer, J., 248.
Lehmann, — , 103.
Lehmann, L., 338.
Leidy, J., 227, 354.
Le Jolis, Auguste, 374.
Lemaire, N., 336.
Le Moine, J. M., 232.
Leuckart, R., 223, 242, 253,
Lewes, G. H, 335, 338.
Lewis, J., 325.
Leycester, A. A., 232.
Leydig, Franz., 227, 242, 248.
Lieberkuhn, N., 346.
Liebermeister, — , 338.
Lilljeborg, W., 232.
Lilljeborg, W. and H. Rathke, 242.
Lindberg, S. O., 117.
Linden, J., 103.
Linder, — , 248.
Lindermayer, R. A., 232.
Lindley, Jno., 374.
Lister, W., 355.
Livingstone, J. S., 374.
Lobb, —,394.
Loche, — , 227, 232.
Loew, H, 248.
Logan, W. E., 355.
Longet, F. A., 339.
Lorentz, P. G., 117, 383.
Lorenz, C, 248.
Lorv, Chas., 355.
Lory, Ch. and Pillett, 355.
Lossen, C, 355.
Lowe, E. J., 382.
Lowe, R, T., 103, 325, 328, 375.
Lowe, Jno., 394.

522

ALPHABETICAL LIST OF AUTHORS,

Lubbock, Jno., 242, 24S.

Lucas, — , 243.

Luders, Job.. E., 395.

Ludwig, C, 339.

Ludwig, K., 355.

Luschka, H., 341, 347.

Lyell, C, 355.

Lycett, Jno., 355.

Lyon, S. S. and Cassiday, S. A., 355.

M'Bain, James, 227, 355.

Mac Andrew, R., 325.

Macdonald, J. D., 325, 328.

Macdonnell, R,, 240.

Macgillivray, Jno., 223, 227, 330.

M'llwraith, Thos., 232.

Mackie, S. J., 355.

Maclacblan, — , 248.

Macvicar, — , 103.

Magron, Martin and Fernet, 341.

Maisonneuve, Durieu de, 389.

Malherbe, Alfred, 232.

Maly, J. K., 375.

Mandl, M. S., 342.

Marcoke, F., 227.

Marey, J., 342.

Margo, Ph., 325, 347.

Marsuel, — de, 248.

Martens, E. v., 325, 355.

Martini, u. Chemnitz, 326.

Martius, C F. Ph. v., 103, 375.

Massalongo, A. D. B., 384.

Matteucci, Ch., 240, 346.

Matthieu, C, 248.

Mauthner, — , 341.

Maximovicz, C. J., 103, 375.

Mayer, — , 347.

Meade, R. H., 244.

Meek, F. B., and F. v. Hayden, 355.

Meigs, J. A., 227.

Meinshausen, K. F., 103.

Melicocq, Baron, 104.

Menetries, E., 248.

Mettenheimer, C, 253, 347.

Mettenius, G., 375.

Mettenius, M. G., 115.

Meyer, Diirr, 248.

Meyer, Herm. v., 355, 356.

Meyer, H. v. and W. Dunker, 357.

Michalet, Eugene, 375.

Middendorf, A. v., 232, 356.

Miers, John, 104, 376.

Miguel, F. A. W., 376.

Milde, J., 115, 117.

Milliere, P., 248.

Mitchell, H., 356.

Mitten, W., 118.

Moerch, O. A. L., 326.

Moeschler, H. B., 248.

Mohl, H. v., 104.

Moleschott, Jac., 341.

Molin, R., 253.

Montagne, Camille, 398.

Monteiro, J. J., 232.

Montes de Oca, R., 232.

Moore, Charles, 356.

Moore, J. F., 232.

Moore, Thos., 115, 382.

Moquin-Tandon, A., 232.

Moreau, A., 240.

Morel, C, 347.

Morelet, A., 328.

Morlot, A., 356.

Motschoulski, V., 248.

Mueller, J., 104.

Miiggenberg, St. Schultzer v., 389.

Miiller, F., 376.

Muller, Fritz., 329, 331, 333.

Miiller, H., 227, 347, 348, 376.

Muller, J., 248, 356.

Muller, Karl, 376.

Muller, Ph. J., 117.

Muller,—, 117.

Mulsant, E., 248, 249.

Munch, Pfarrer, 105.

Munk, H., 341.

Murray, A., 227, 331, 335, 376.

Nageli, C, 105.

Nathusius, H. v., 227.

Naudin, Ch., 105.

Naumann, J. A., 232.

Nees v. Esenbeck, Th. Fr. Lud., 106.

Neilreich, August, 106.

Neisler, H. M., 376.

Nervander, J. H. E., 117.

Neubert, W, 376.

Newberry, J. S., 356.

Newton, A., 233.

Niessl, G. v., 390.

Nilsson, S., 240.

Nisser, P., 228.

Nitschke, T., 106.

Nordmann, Alex, v., 356.

Nordmann, Arth. and Alex., 233.

Norman, A. M., 242.

Norman, Geo., 395.

Notaris, J. de, 383.

Noulet, — ., 356.

Nourse, W. E. C, 237.

Ny lander, W., 119,385.

Oehl, — ., 233.
Ogilvie, G., 345.
Oliver, Daniel, 376.
Oilier, M., 346.
Ooster, "W. A., 356.
Orbigny, A. d', 356.

ALPHABETICAL LIST OF AUTHORS.

523

Orbigny, Charles d', 356.
Ordenstein, L., 344.
Owen, Richard, 228, 356, 357.
Owen, Robert, 233.
Owsjannikow, M., 341, 348.
Oudemans, T. A., 106.

Paetsch, J. S., 298.

Pagenstecher, A., 237, 244.

Palacky, Dr., 106, 107.

Pancic, Josef, 107.

Fanum, P. L., 233, 339.

Pa>penheim, M., 342, 344.

Parker, W. K. 233.

Parker, W. K. and T. R. Jones, 336,

357.
Parlatore, Pilippo, 107.
Pascoe, F. P., 249.
Passler, W., 233.
Pastern-, L., 390.
Pavy, Fred. W., 344.
Payod, V., 385.
Pease, W. H., 253, 326.
Pelzeln, A. v., 233.
Perger, A. R. v., 107.
Personnat, V., 107.
Pescatorea, — ., 107.
Peters, W., 228, 237.
Petherick, 228, 233.
Pettigrew, James, 342.
Pfeiffer, L., 326, 328.
Philippe, — ., 108.
Philippi, R. A., 107, 223,233, 243, 249,

376.
Philips, J. P., 341.
Pictet, J. F., 357.
Poetsch, J. S., 398.
Pokorny, A , 108, 398.
Ponzi, — ., 357.
Porier, J. A. N., 228.
Pouchet, G., 357.
Pouchet, M. F., 342.
Powrie, W., 357.
Powys, T. L., 233.
Prado, C. de, Vemeuil, E. de, and Bar-

rande, J., 357.
Praun, Sgm., 249.
Prestwich, Jos., 351, 357.
Price, John, 335.
Prince, Temple, 326, 329.
Pringsheim, N., 395.
Pritchard, A., 336, 395.
Pucheran, — ., 228.
Puel, T., 108,377.

Quatrefages, A. de, 249.
Qnenstedt, F. A., 357.

Quetelet, A., 108.

Rabenhorst, L., 117, 118, 383, 385,

390, 395, 398.
Radcliffe, C. B., 341.
Radiguel, — ., 357.
Raemdonck, Van, — ., 357
Ramond, A., 377.
Rauwenhoff, N. W. P., 108.
Ravenel, H. W., 390.
Redfern, Peter, 228, 249, 253.
Redfield, J. H., 328.
Reeve, Lovell, 328.
Regel, E., 108, 377, 382.
Regel, E. v. H. Tiling, 377.
Reichert, C. B., 228, 341, 345.
Reichardt, H. W., 115, 383.
Reichenbach, L. and H. G., 108.
Reinhardt, J., 233.
Bernhardt, R., 233.
Reinicke, F., 395.
Reinsch, Paul, 377, 382.
Reissek, S., 108.
Reissner, E., 240.
Remak, Robt., 341.
Rentsch, S., 243.
Retzius, A., 336.
Reuss, A. E., 357.
Rhind, W., 357.
Richardson, Benj. W., 341.
Richardson, J., 240.
Riche, L., 249.
Richter, Berthold, 390.
Rickinan, C, 357.
Roberts, G. E., 358.
Robin, Ch., 228, 249, 342.
Roemer, F. A, 358.
Rogers, H. D., 358.
Rolle, — ., 358.
Rollett, Al., 339.
Romer, Dr., 328, 330.
Roper, F. C. S., 396.
Rose, Ernest, and E. Bescherelle, 384.
Rosenthal, J., 341.
Rossman, J., 109.
Rostrup, E., 109.
Rouget, Charles, 339, 346.
Roussel, C, 249.
Rutimeyer, L., 358.

Sachs, Julius, 109, 377.

Sacken, R. O., 246.

Safford, J. M., 358.

Sagot, P., 110.

Salm, Horstmar, Fiirst zu, 241.

Salter, J. W., 358.

Salvin, Osbert, 233.

Samuel, — .,341.

524

ALPHABETICAL LIST OF AUTHORS.

Samuelsen, J. and J. B. Hicks, 249, 25<

Sandberger, — ., 328.

Sandwith, H., 228.

Sanio, K., 110.

Sapor ta, Gaston de, 358.

Sars, M., 254, 328, 335.

Sars, M. and Tho. Kjerulf, 358.

Saunders, W., 237.

Saunders, W. W., 249.

Saussure, H. de, 228, 244.

Savi, Pietro, 378.

Schacht, H., 110, 378.

Schaffner, Dr., 378.

Schaum, — ., 249.

Scheibler, C, 223.

Schelske, — ., 346.

Schenck, Prof., 111,378.

Schimper, W. Ph., 117, 118.

Schiner, J. R., 249.

Schlegel, H. 228, 233.

Schlechtendal, D. F. L. v., 110, 378.

Schlotthauber, Dr., 378.

Schmarda, L, K., 254.

Schneider, A., 254.

Schnitzlein, A., 111.

Schbbel, J., 243.

Schbnefeld, W., 378.

Schonhak, J., 223.

Schott, H. G., 111.

Schreiber, — ., 249.

Schrenck, L. v., 249.

Schroeder, O., 228.

Schultz, C. H. (Bipont.), Ill, 379.

Schultze, Max., 336.

Schwartz, G., 328.

Schwendener, S., 386.

Sclater, P. L., 223, 228, 233, 234.

Seemann, Berthold, 379.

Sendtner, O., 379.

Senft, Dr., 111,385.

Sepp, J. C, 249.

Sequin, M., 237.

Seixes, E., 345.

Serres, M. de., 358.

Shumard, B. F., 358.

Simpson, W. H.,234, 235, 243.

Sismonda, A., 358.

Smidt, O., 254.

Smith, Edward, 342.

Smith, F. A., 243, 249, 250.

Smith, Hamilton L., 396.

Sowerby, J. E., 111.

Sparswood, G., 250.

Speke, J. F., 234.

Spruce, R., 112, 118.

Stainton, H. T., 250.

Staudinger, — ., 250.

Stavely, — ., 250.

Steenstrup, J., 358.

Stein, F, 336.

Stein Parve, D. J., 223.

Steindachner, F., 358.

Stenhammer, — .. 386.

Stewart, T. H., 228, 254.

Stizenberger, Ernst, 396.

Stoliczka, — ., 358.

Strachev, R., 228.

Strieker, D., 237.

Strobel, P. de, 328.

Strozzi, C , 352.

Stiir, M., 358.

Stur, Diouys, 112.

Sturm, J. W., and A. Schnitzlein, 379.

Sucquet, J. P., 342.

Suess, E., 358, 359.

Suffrian, E., 250.

Swinhoe, R., 235.

Symonds, W. S., 359.

Tate, G., 359.

Tayler, James, 235, 259.

Taylor, G. Cavendisb, 235.

Tchihatcheff, P. de, 112, 379.

Tenore, M., 112.

Theobald, W., 328.

Thomson, J., i'23.

Thomson, C. G., 251.

Thompson, W. (Weymouth), 328.

Thoxell, T., 243, 244.

Thwaites, G. H. K., and J. D. Hooker,

379.
Tiberi, N., 326.
Timbal-Lagrave, E. and H. Loret, 111,

379.
Todaro, Agostino, 379.
Tomaschek, A., 113.
Tomes, R. F., 228, 229, 235.
Tornabene, E. F., 113.
Trautschold, H., 359.
Trautvetter, E. R. von, 379.
Tremeau de Rochebrune, A., and A.

Savatier, 380.
Treviranus, L. C., 113, 380.
Tristram, H. B., 235.
Troschel, F. H., 223,211.
Tulasne, M., 390.
Turk, R., 223.
Turner, W. 229, 341, 344.

Uhler, P. R., 251.

Uloth, W., 113.
Unger, F., 359.

Valette, St. George, A. de la, 242.
Vallee, J. L., 341.
Valenciennes, A., 333, 336.
Valentin, G., 342,
Van Beueden, — ., 335.

ALPHABETICAL LIST OP AUTHORS.

525

VanDeen, — .,341.

Van Kempen, — ., 341.

Venables, E. and G. Moore, 223.

Ventnri, G., 396.

Verlot, B., 380.

Verneuil, M. de, De Collornb, Triger,

and Cotteau, 359.
Verreaux, J., 235.
Verster, v. Walverhorst, 229.
Vibrage, Marquis de, 359.
Vierordt, K, 339.
Vinson, Auguste, 229.
Voit, Carl, 330.
Volger, O., 359.
Volkmann, A. W., 346.
Vrolik, — ., 330.
Vrolik, W. and Van der Hoeven, 229.

Wagener, G. R., 254.
Wagner, Rud., 223, 341, 343, 380.
Wagner, A., 359, 360.
Waldenburg, Louis, 254.
Walker-Amott, G. A., 380, 391.
Walker, D., 235.
Walker, Francis, 251.
Walker, H., 352.
Wallace, A. R., 235, 251.
Wallengren, H. D. I., 251.
Waller, Augustus, 339.
Wallich,G. C, 223, 331, 360, 397.
Warpers, — ., 113.
Warthausen, R. K., 235.
Wartmann, Elie, 380.
Waterhouse, G. R., 251.
Watson, H. C, 380.
Wawra, H. and J. Peyritsch, 113.
Weber, C. O., 380.

Weddell, M., 114,380.
Weise, J. F., 397.
Weiss, W., 114.
Welcker, H., 380.
Weinland, D. F., 223, 229, 235.
Wendland, H., 114.
Weld, F. A., 360.
West, Tuffen, 397,
Westendorp, G. D., 391.
Whiteaves, J. F., 360.
Wilde, W. R., 223.
Wilkens, M., 346.
Wilkomm, M., 114.
Williamson, W. C, 243.
Wilson, Daniel, 229.
Wilson, Geo. 241.
Wollaston, T. V., 251.
Wood, H. C., Jim., 360.
Wood, J. G., 224.
Woods, J. F., 360.
Woodward, S. P., 360.
Woronin, M., 114.
Wrigbt, E. P., 254.
Wright, M. v., 235.
Wright, Thomas, 360.
Wunderli, A., 341.
Wydler, H., 114,380.

Yarrell, W., 241.
Yersin, — ., 251.

Zetterstedt, J. E., 381.
Zetterstedt, J. W., 251.
Zeuschner, L., 360.

Zigno, Achille, de, and C. J. F. Bun-
bury, 360.
Zimmermann, K. G., 360.

LY.— PHANEEOGAMIA.— BIBLIOGKAPHY.

INDEX TO :NEW GENERA DESCRIBED EN" THE WORKS ENUMERATED.

Adenopetalum, K. and G., 373.
Amblyanthera, Miill. Arg., 5.
Amomocarpus, Miers, 376.
Amphigenes, Jank., 102.
Anamomis, Griseb., 368.
Arthrothamnus, K. and G., 373.
Astemon, Reg., 108.

Barteria, Hk. f., 101.
Basananthe, Peyr, 114.
Biancaea, Tod.. 379.
Bicchia, Pari., 107.
Brachyandra, Phil., 377.
Brachyaster, Amb., 361.
Buchloe, Eng., 98.

Caldesia, Pari., 107.
Carpodiptera, Griseb., 370.
Casinga, Griseb., 369.
Catoblastus, Wendl., 114.
Chamopleura, Criig., 368.
Chamitea, Kern., 372.
Chondrochilus, Phil., 377.
Cionandra, Griseb., 368.
Cionosicys, Griseb., 368.

Daedalacanthus, T. And., 379.
Dasyaulus, Thw., 379.
Diadenaria, K. and G., 373.
Diazia, Phil., 376.
Dichopsis, Thw., 379.

526

INDEX TO PHANEEOOAMIA.

Dichrophyllum, K. and G., 373.
Dictocaryum, Wendl., 114.
Disepalum, Hk. f., 371.
Ditta, Griseb., 370.
Domeykoa, Phil., 377.

Eleutherococcus, Max., 103.
Elytropus, Mull., Arg., 104.
Eremocharis, Phil., 376.
Eulychnia, Phil., 376.
Eumecanthus, K. and G., 372.
Euphorbiastrum, K. and G., 373.
Eurychasnia, Griseb., 368.

Eissicalyx, Benth., 363.
Eropiera, Hk. f., 101.

Genaria, Pari., 107.
Gynandriris, Pari., 107.
Gypothamnium, Phil., 377.
Gyrotsenia, Griseb., 370.

Hasmatostaphis, Hk. f., 371.
Haploclathra, Benth., 362.
Hemiandrina, Hk. f., 371.
Henlea, Griseb., 369.
Heterothrix, Mull., Arg., 5.
Hexadenia; K. and G., 373.
Hylomecon, Max., 103.
Hypechusa, Alef., 91.

Iriartella, Wendl., 114.
Irvingia, Hk. f., 371.
Ischnosiphon, Korn., 373.

Jobaphes, Phil., 377.
Jochroma, 100.

Krahsea, Reg., 377.

Leptopus, K. and G., 373.
Leucocroton, Griseb., 369.
Linodendron, Griseb., 370.

Maackia, Rupr., 131.
Macrosiphonia, Miill., Arg., 5.
Marantochloa, Gris, 368.
Marssonia, Karst., 372.
Maximowiczia, Rupr., 130.
Medusea, K. and G., 373.
Mesechites, Miill., Aug., 5.
Microphyes, Phil., 376.
Mitrosicyos, Max., 103.
Monanthochloe, Eng., 98.
Monostiche, Korn., 373.

NotophEena, Miers, 104.
Octopleura, Griseb., 368.

Omphalotrix, Max., 103.
Oxyphyllum, Phil., 377.

Pachynocarpus, Hk. f., 371.
Parishia, Hk. f., 371.
Pentaspadon, Hk. f., 371.
Peponopsis, Naud., 106.
Piptocephalum, Sch., Bip., 379.
Phellodendron, Rupr., 131.
Phlebotamia, Griseb., 370.
Plagiorhegma, Max., 103.
Pleiospora, Harv., 99.
Pleurodynia, Griseb., 368.
Polycladus, Phil., 377.
Prioria, Griseb., 368.
Pterygocalyx, Max., 103.
Ptyssiglottis, T. And., 379.

Rhabdadenia, Miill., Arg., 5.
Rheedia, Griseb., 370.
Rhodocalyx, Mull., Arg., 5.
Rhopalostigma, Phil. 377.

Schizopepon, Max., 103.
Scypharia, Miers, 104.
Silva3a, Phil., 376.
Sphaerocoma, T. And., 92.
Sphaerothalamus, Hk. f., 371.
Sterigmanthe, K. and G., 373.
Stichophyllum, Phil., 376.
Stipecoma, Miill., Arg., 5.
Sycopsis, Oliv., 376.
Symphyllocarpus, Max., 103.
Syneilesis, Max., 103.

Tilingia, Reg., 377.
Tithymalopsis, K. and G., 373.
Triacis, Griseb., 368.
Tribolacis, Griseb., 368.
Tricherosterigma, K. and G., 372.
Trigonochlamys, Hk. f., 371.
Triomma, Hk. f., 371.
Tryphostemma, Harv., 99.

Urechites, Miill., Arg., 104.
Urmenetea, Phil., 377.

Varasia, Phil., 377.
Vasquezia, Phil., 377.
Veitchia, Ldl. (Gard. Chron. 23, iii. 18,
61) 374.

Waddingtonia, Phil., 377.
Woehleria, Griseb., 369.

Xiphion, Pari., 107.

Zschokkea, Miill., Arg., 4.

INDEX.

Acanthocercus, 31
Aeanthometriua, 460
Acephala, Bibliography of, 328
Actinophryna, 460, 4C2
Actinophrys, 462
Actinozoa, Bibliography of, 331
Africa, the Fauna of Equatorial, 288
Agassiz, L., Classification of the sub-
kingdom Badiata, 438
Agassiz, L., Natural Histoiy of the

United States : Review of, 433
Alethe, 295

Algce, Bibliography of, 391
Alveolina, 188, 189
Amoeba, 465
Amcebina, 460, 463

Amoorland, the Mammals of, Notice of, 1 3
Amoorland Land, Review of the Flora

of, 127
Amphistegina, 192, 193
Anatomy, Human, Bibliography of, 337
Anomalurus, 293
Annulosa, Bibliography of, 241
Aimulata, Bibliography of, 251
Apocynaceffi, 1
Aporia, 409

Apteryx, P. L. Sclater and F. v. Hoch-
stetter, Report on the present State
of our Knowledge of the living Spe-
cies of, 504
„ australis, 504
„ Mantelli, 505
„ maxima, 506
„ Owenii, 505
Arachnida and Myriapoda, Bibliography

of, 243
Arteria auditoria interna, Prof. Hyrtl
on the distribution of the, 324

„ laryngea superior, injection of
the, 321

„ lingualis, Prof. Hyrtl on the
injection of, 331

., meningea media, injection of,
322
„ occipitalis, injection of, 322
Arteries, uterine, injection of the, 322
Artery, Coronary, Prof. Hyrtl on the

injection of the, 321
Aves, Bibliography of, 229
Authors, Alphabetical list of, 517
Axolotl, E. Perceval Wright, Notes on
the Anatomy of the Alimentary Sys-
tem of the, 60

Bentham, George, on the Species and

Genera of Plants, considered with

Reference to their practical application

to Systematic Botany, 133

Berkeley, M. J., Outlines of British Fuu-

gology, Review of, 5
Bibliography of Mollusca, 325

„ Proposed Scheme of, 516

„ 85

„ Botanical, 91, 360

„ List of Serials referred to

in the, 85, 219

„ Aves, 229

„ Annulosa, 241

„ Coelenterata, 331

„ Cryptogamia, 115, 381

„ Mammalia, 224

„ Mollnsca, 325

„ Paleontology, 348

„ Phanerogamia, 91, 360,

525

„ Physiology and Human

Anatomy, including Histology, 337
„ Pisces, 297

„ Protozoa, 335

„ Zoology, Geographical

Distribution, &c. 221
Biloculina, 195
Blackwall, J., Spiders of Great Britain

and Ireland, Review of, 410
Boletus, on the changes of colour in, 6
Bosmina, 31

Browii-Sequard, C. E., Lectures on the
Physiology and Pathology of the Cen-
tral Nervous System, Review of, 267,
399
Bythotrephes, 32

Calcarina, 193, 194

Carpenter, W. B., on the General Re-
sults of the Study of Typical Forms
of Foraminifera, in their Relation to
the Systematic Arrangement of that
Group, and to the fundamental Prin-
ciples of Natural History Classifica-
tion, 185

,, on the Systematic Arrange-
ment of the Rhizopoda, 456

Cephalophora, Bibliography of, 326

Cephalophus, 292

Cephalopoda, Dibranchiate, Albany Han-
cock, on certain Points in the Ana-
tomy and Phvsiologv of the, 473
3 Y

528

JKDEl.

Cercopithecus, 291

Ceriodaphnia, 33

Chseropsis, 293

Chimpanzee, John Marshall on the
Brain of a young, 296

Church, W. S., on the Myology of the
Orang Utang (Simia Morio), 510

Claparede, E. and Lachmann, Scheme
of Classification of the Rhizopoda, 459

Cleland, John, on the Serial Homologies
of the Articular Surfaces of the Mam-
malian Axis, Atlas, and Occipital
Bone, 151

Ccelenterata, Bibliography of, 331

„ Becent Contributions to the

Literature of the Sub -kingdom, 416

Colobus, 291

Cordyceps, 10, 11

Cornuspira, 195

Crania of the most ancient Races of
Man, D. SchaafFhausen on the, 155

Cristellariag, 195

Crustacea, Bibliography of, 241

Cryptogamia, Bibliography of the, 115
„ Bibliography of, 381

Cycloclypeus, 192, 193

Cycloclina, 187

Cynogale, 292

Daphnia, 31

Daphniidas, Z. Ley dig on the, 22

Dendritina, 189

Dentalina, 195, 197

Digestion, Assimilation, Bibliography of

the Organs of, 343
Dimorphina, 195

Evadne, 32

Eilicales, Bibliography of, 381

Eilices, Bibliography of, 115

Flabellina, 195

Flora Brasiliensis, Review of, 1

Florae Amurensis Primitias, by C. J.
Maximo wicz, Review of, 126

Floras, Colonial, viz: — 1. Flora of the
British West Indian Islands, by A.
H. R. Grisebach. 2. Flora Capensis,
by W. H. Harvey. 3. Enumeratio
Plantarum Zeylanias, by G. H. K.
Thwaites. 4. Flora Hong-Kongensis,
by Geo. Bentham, Review of, 256

Foraminifera, Typical Forms of, W. B.
Carpenter on the General Results of
the Study of the, in their relation to
the Systematic Arrangement of that
Group, and to the Fundamental Prin-
ciples of Natural History Classifica-
tion, 185

Frondicularia, 195

Fungi, Bibliography of, 386

Fungolosy, Outlines of British, Review

of, 5
Fusalina, 192

Generation and reproduction, Biblio-
graphy of the Organs of, 344

Glandulina, 195

Globigerina, 198

Gregarina, 35

Growth, G. Rolleston on Correlations
of, 484

Gyphohierax, 294

Hancock, Albany, on Certain Points
in the Anatomy and Physiology of
the Dibranchiate Cephalopoda, 473

Haverina, 195

Hepaticse, Bibliography of, 118

Heterostegina, 192, 193

Histology, and Human Anatomy, Bib-
liography of, 337, 347

Holopedium, 31

Homologues, Serial, of the Arterial Sur-
faces of the Mammalian Axis, Atlas,
and Occipital Bone, John Cleland on
the, 151

Huxley, T. H., on the Zoological Rela-
tions of Man with the lower Animals,
67

Hydrozoa, Bibliography of, 333

Hyomoschus, 292

Hyrtl, Prof. Anatomical Notes by, 315

Hysterinees, M. le Pasteur Duby's Me-
moir on the, Review of, 407

Infusoria, R. Pritchard's History of the,

Reviewed, 121
Injections, Prof. Hyrtl, on some results

of isolated Arterial, 320
Insecta, Bibliography of, 244

Kjokkcnmoddings, John Lubbock on
the, 489

Latona, 31

Lewes, G. H., on the Sensory and Mo-
tor Functions of the Nerves, 1 76

Ley dig, F., Naturgeschichte der Daphni-
den, Review of, 22

Lichens, Bibliography of, 118,384

Lieberkuhnia, 460

Ligamentum teres, Prof. Hyrtl on the
vascular supply of the, 323

Lingulina, 195

Lituola, 471

Lobosa, an order of Rhizopoda, 467

Loliginidse, 474

INDEX.

529

Lubbock, Jno., on the Kjokkenmbddings,

Recent Geologico- Archaeological Re-

searches in Denmark, 489
,, „ on Sphaerularia Borabi, 44

Lutodeira Chanos , Forsk., Prof. Hyrtl

on some peculiarities in the Gills of,

317
Lynceus, 31

M'Donnell, R., on an Organ in the

Skate which appears to be the homo-

logue of the electrical Organ of the

Torpedo, 57
Macrothrix, 31
Man, Prof. Huxley on the Zoological

relations of, with the Lower Animals,

67
Manatee, 294
Marginulina, 195
Marshall, John, on the Brain of the

young Chimpanzee, 296
Martius, Flora Brasiliensis, Review of, 1
Maximowicz, C. J., Primitive Floras

Amurenses, Review of, 126
Miliola, 95
Miliolida, 470
Miliolitidae, 195
Mollusca, Bibliography of, 325
Molluscoida, Bibliography of, 330
Motion and Support, Bibliography of,

the organs of, 345
Muscales, Bibliography of, 382
Musci, Bibliography of, 116
Myristacese, 1
Myxogastres, 7

Nerves, G.H. Lewes on the Sensory and
Motor Functions of the, 176

Nervous System, Central, C. E. Brown-

Sequard's Lectures on the Physiology

and Pathology of the, Review of, 267

„ „ and Organs of Sense,

Bibliography of the, 339

Nodosarinae, 195, 197

Notes, Anatomical, by Prof. Hyrtl, 315

Numida, 295

Numniulites, 192, 193

Nyctalis, 11

Octopodidae, 473

Octopus, 483

Ommastrephes, 475

Operculina, 192, 193

Orang-Utang {Simla Mario), W. S.

Church on the Myology of the, 510
Orang-Utang, George Rolleston on the

Affinities of the Brain of the, 201
Orbiculina, 188, 191
Orbitolites. 187, 188

Ostreichnion, 409
Otolicnus, 292

Palaeontology, Bibliography of, 348

Pamphagus, 460

Parthenogenesis, Report on Vegetable,

447
Pasithea, 31
Peneroplis, 189, 190
Penilia, 32

Periodicals, List of, 85, 219
,, America, 85

„ France, 87

„ Germany, 88

„ Great Britian, Ireland and

the Colonies, 86

„ Holland, Belgium and Swit-

zerland, 89

,, Russia, 90

„ Scandinavia, 90

„ Spain and Italy, 90

Phanerogamia, Bibliography of the, 91,

360
Phasidus, 295
Philodromus, 412

Physiology and Human Anatomy, Bib-
liography of, 337
Pisces, Bibliography of, 237
Plants, Species and Genera of, con-
sidered with Reference to their practi-
cal Application to Systematic Botany,
George Bentham on the, 133
Planularia, 195
Pleopis, 33
Podon, 32
Podostoma, 464

Polyacanthus, Prof. Hyrtl on a peculiar
arrangement of the Gill-chambers in,
319
Polycystina, 35
Polyphemus, 32
Polystomella, 194
Potomocheerus, 293
Protozoa, Bibliography of, 335

„ on the Natural Position and
limits of the Group, 34
Psorospermise, 35

Quadrumana, P. L. Sclater, Note upon
the Northern limit of the, in the New
World, 507

Quinqueloculina, 195

Radiata, Arrangement of the, by L. Agas-

siz, 438
Radiolaria, an Order of Rhizopoda,

467
Reptilia and Amphibia, Bibliography of,

236

530

IIsDEX.

Respiratory and Circulatory Organs,
Bibliography of, 342

Reticularia, an Order of Rhizopoda,
466, 469

Retinas, anangious, Prof. Hyrtl on, 316

Rhizopoda, Schemes of their Arrange-
ment, by M. M. Claparede and Lach-
mann, 459

„ Synoptical Arrangements

of the, 37

„ W. B. Carpenter on the

Systematic Arrangement of the, 456

Rimulina, 195

Rolleston, George, on the Affinities of
the Brain of the Orang-Utang, 201

Rolleston, on Correlations of Growth,
with a Special Example from the
Anatomy of a Porpoise, 484

Santalaceoe, 1

Schaaffhausen, Dr., on the Crania of the
most ancient Races of Man, 155

Sciurus, 293

Sclater, P. L., Note upon the Northern
Limit of the Quadrumana in the New
World, 507

Sclater, P. L. and F. v. Hochstetter, Re-
port on the Present State of our Know-
ledge of the Species of Apteryx, living
in New Zealand, 504

Sida, 31

Skate, R. M'Donnell on an Organ
which appears to be the homologue of
the electrical Organ of the Torpedo
in the, 57

Sketches, Zoological, by Joseph Wolf:
Notice of, 445

SphEerularia Bombi, J. Lubbock on, 44

Spiders of Great Britain and Ireland,
Review of Mr. BlackwalPs Work on
the, 410

Spirolina, 189

Spiroloculina, 195

Thomisus, 412
Tragelaphus, 292
Triloculina, 195
Trochammina, 471
Troglodytes, 291

"Vaginulina, 195
Vertebralina, 195

Wolf, Joseph, Zoological Sketches: No-
tice of, 445

Wright, E. Perceval, Notes on the Ana-
tomy of the Alimentary System of the
Axolotl, 60

Zoology, General and Mixed Works on,
&c. 221

END OF VOL. I.

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